Political Process

Defection in Indian politics refers to the act of an elected representative leaving the political party on whose symbol they were elected and subsequently joining another party. This phenomenon gained significant prominence following the Fourth General Elections in 1967, where it played a crucial role in the formation and dissolution of state governments. The constant shifting of political loyalties and frequent changes in party affiliation by legislators during this period led to the popularization of the expression 'Aya Ram, Gaya Ram'. This phrase, literally meaning "Ram came, Ram went," became a common term in India's political vocabulary to describe the practice of floor-crossing by elected representatives. The incidence of defection was so impactful that it ultimately led to a constitutional amendment aimed at preventing such practices.

The "Era of One-Party Dominance," frequently referred to as the "Congress System," describes the period immediately following India's independence when the Indian National Congress party held an overwhelming majority in the nation's electoral politics. This era prominently features the first three general elections in 1952, 1957, and 1962, where Congress secured significant victories at both the national level and in most states. The Congress's dominance was rooted in several key factors. It benefited from the legacy of the national movement, being widely perceived as its inheritor. It was the only political party at the time with a well-established, country-wide organizational structure. Furthermore, the party was led by popular and charismatic figures like Jawaharlal Nehru, who spearheaded its campaigns. The Congress also evolved into a broad social and ideological coalition, encompassing diverse groups from peasants to industrialists, various castes, religions, languages, and political viewpoints ranging from revolutionary to conservative. This all-inclusive nature allowed it to serve as a 'platform' accommodating numerous interests and even other political parties in the pre-independence era. A crucial distinction of this dominance was its occurrence within a democratic framework, setting India apart from other newly independent nations that adopted non-democratic one-party rule. Despite many parties contesting free and fair elections, the Congress consistently won. The first-past-the-post electoral system further amplified this victory; while the Congress often won over three-fourths of the seats, it typically secured less than half of the total votes, benefiting from the division of non-Congress votes among its many rivals. Internally, the Congress managed various 'factions' — groups based on ideology or personal ambitions. The party's coalition-like character fostered tolerance for internal differences and accommodated the ambitions of various leaders. This internal competition meant that political contestation largely occurred within the Congress itself, allowing it to function simultaneously as the ruling party and a forum for diverse views, hence the term "Congress System." Though numerically weak, opposition parties played a vital role in upholding democracy by providing criticism and nurturing future leaders.

Coalition government occurs when no single party wins a majority in the legislature, and two or more parties with enough seats combine to form a government based on a common agreed programme/agenda. The word 'coalition' derives from the Latin 'coalitio' (to grow together). India saw its first stable single-party majority challenge in 1977, and since then has experienced continuous coalition politics at the Centre with the exception of 2014 and 2019 when BJP won outright majorities. Coalition politics is characterised by compromise, consensus, and pragmatism over ideology. Both pre-poll coalitions (common manifesto-based) and post-election alliances (power-sharing) have been seen in India.

Political parties are voluntary associations of individuals sharing political views, seeking power through constitutional means. India has a multi-party system due to its continental size, social diversity, and universal adult franchise. The Election Commission of India registers parties and grants recognition as national or state parties based on their poll performance. Recognised parties receive reserved symbols, broadcast time, and other privileges. The Indian party system has been characterised as a "one-party dominance system" or "Congress system" by Rajni Kothari (through the 1967 elections). Since 1989, competitive multi-party coalition politics has replaced this dominance.

A pressure group is an organised body of people who promote and defend their common interests by influencing government policy — without contesting elections or seeking to capture political power directly. Also called interest groups or vested groups. They differ from political parties in this key respect. The term originated in the USA. Pressure groups use three techniques (Odegard): electioneering (placing favourable persons in office), lobbying (persuading officials), and propagandising (influencing public opinion). Indian pressure groups are less organised than those in Western countries but are numerous and influential. They act as a liaison between the government and its members, influencing both policymaking and policy-implementation through legitimate methods like lobbying, correspondence, publicity, petitioning, and public debating.

The Anti-Defection Law was introduced by the **52nd Amendment Act of 1985**, which added the **Tenth Schedule** to the Constitution. It disqualifies members of Parliament and State Legislatures who defect from their political party — either by voluntarily giving up party membership or by voting/abstaining contrary to party direction without prior permission (if the act is not condoned within 15 days). The 91st Amendment Act, 2003 later strengthened the law by deleting the "split" exemption and capping the size of Council of Ministers. The law was described by PM Rajiv Gandhi as "the first step towards cleaning-up public life." Its goal is to curb unprincipled, power- or money-motivated defections that destabilise governments. The Tenth Schedule is designed to prevent the evil or mischief of political defections motivated by the lure of office or material benefits or other similar considerations, and is intended to strengthen the fabric of Indian parliamentary democracy by curbing unprincipled and unethical political defections.

Regional parties (officially called "state parties" by the Election Commission) operate primarily within a single state or region, articulate regional interests, and are identified with a specific cultural, linguistic, or ethnic group. With the rise of coalition politics at the Centre since 1989, regional parties have graduated from purely regional actors to significant players in national governance. Regional parties are classified into four types: (1) those based on regional culture/ethnicity, (2) those with all-India outlook but no national base, (3) those formed by splits in national parties, and (4) personalised parties formed around charismatic leaders.

The anti-defection law, introduced through the 52nd Amendment Act of 1985, has faced significant criticism despite its stated objective of preventing unprincipled political defections and strengthening parliamentary democracy. Though initially hailed as "a bold step towards cleansing our political life," the law has revealed multiple operational lacunae and has failed to prevent defections entirely. Critics argue that the law conflates dissent with defection, thereby curbing legislators' right to dissent and freedom of conscience. The distinction between individual and group defections under the law is considered irrational, as it permits wholesale defections while banning retail defections. Additionally, the vesting of decision-making authority in the presiding officer has been questioned on grounds of political bias and lack of legal expertise. The law also contains what critics view as illogical discriminations—such as between independent and nominated members joining political parties—and lacks provisions for expulsion based on activities outside the legislature. These criticisms prompted reforms through the 91st Amendment Act of 2003, which sought to strengthen the law by deleting the split exemption and introducing restrictions on ministerial appointments for defectors.

The Anti-Defection Law, introduced by the 52nd Amendment Act of 1985, disqualifies members of Parliament and state legislatures for defection from one political party to another. This law made changes to four Articles of the Constitution and added the Tenth Schedule. The 91st Amendment Act of 2003 further modified these provisions, notably by omitting the exception for disqualification in cases of party splits. The law outlines conditions for disqualification for members of political parties, independent members, and nominated members. It also provides exceptions, such as in the event of a party merger where two-thirds of the members agree, or when a member, serving as a presiding officer, temporarily gives up party membership. The presiding officer of the House is the deciding authority for disqualification questions, and while their decision was originally final, the Supreme Court ruled in the Kihoto Hollohan case (1993) that it is subject to judicial review. The presiding officer also has rule-making powers to implement the Tenth Schedule's provisions.

The Anti-Defection Law, enshrined in the Tenth Schedule of the Constitution, outlines specific situations where the disqualification of members for defection does not apply. Initially, there were two primary exceptions: a merger of a political party with another party, and a member becoming a presiding officer of the House. Specifically, if a member leaves their party due to a merger, they are not disqualified, provided two-thirds of the party's members have agreed to the merger. Additionally, a member elected as the presiding officer of the House is exempted if they voluntarily give up their party membership or rejoin it after their term as presiding officer ends. This exception aims to uphold the dignity and impartiality of the presiding officer's role. However, an earlier exception related to a split in a legislature party, involving one-third of its members, was removed by the 91st Amendment Act of 2003. This amendment eliminated protection for defectors on the grounds of splits, meaning such actions now lead to disqualification.

Voting behaviour (electoral behaviour) is the study of how and why people vote as they do in democratic elections. It is studied under **psephology** — a branch of political science — derived from the Greek 'psephos' (pottery piece used for voting). In India, voting behaviour is multi-determined due to the country's social diversity, and is influenced by both socio-economic factors (caste, religion, language, region) and political factors (party performance, ideology, money, personality).