Nationalism

Nationalism has played a dual role in modern history: it has been both a force for liberation and a cause of conflict. Nationalism accompanied and contributed to the break-up of large empires — including the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires in the early twentieth century in Europe — as well as the break-up of the British, French, Dutch, and Portuguese colonial empires in Asia and Africa. India's struggle for freedom from colonial rule is a prime example of a nationalist movement, inspired by the desire to establish a nation-state independent of foreign control. However, the right to national self-determination — frequently invoked by nationalist movements — was often understood to include the right to independent statehood for nationalities. This understanding created a serious practical problem: even in the effort to create nation-states aligned with distinct ethnic communities, it was not possible to ensure that newly created states contained only one ethnic community. Most states had more than one ethnic and cultural community within their boundaries. Communities that were small in number and constituted a minority were often disadvantaged. The text makes clear that granting every nationality its own independent state would be impossible. The demand for separate statehood continues to motivate many groups and communities even in the age of globalisation, presenting what may seem paradoxical — nationalist aspirations persisting and intensifying as the world becomes more interconnected. Considerable generosity and skill is needed for countries to deal with such demands in a democratic manner. The summary of the chapter states: the right to national self-determination was often understood to include the right to independent statehood for nationalities, but not only would it be impossible to grant every such claim, it would also undermine the possibility of stable democratic governance.

A persistent challenge in nationalist politics is the accommodation of minorities as equal citizens. When nation-states were formed along ethnic or cultural lines — often with the goal that culturally distinct communities could form separate nation-states — the result was almost always that multiple ethnic and cultural communities ended up living within the same state's boundaries. These communities, often small in number and constituting a minority within the state, were frequently disadvantaged. The problem of accommodating minorities as equal citizens did not disappear after states were formed. A nation-state that does not respect the rights and cultural identity of minorities within its borders finds it difficult to gain their loyalty. This creates a paradox for nationalism itself: the very ideology that sought to create unified, loyal nation-states can produce disloyal or alienated minorities if it fails to respect their distinct identities. The text identifies respecting minority rights as essential — not only for resolving problems arising from new claims for self-determination but also for building a strong and united state. The positive aspect of nationalist movements, even with their flaws, was that they granted political recognition to the claims of communities. The text argues that democratic states must forge national identity on the basis of shared political ideals enshrined in the Constitution rather than on adherence to a particular religion, race, or language.

A nation is not any casual collection of people, nor is it the same as other groups found in human society. It is different from a family (which is based on face-to-face relationships) or other communities. Nations are constituted by shared beliefs, territory, shared political values, and a framework of obligations among members. The first and most fundamental characteristic is that a nation is constituted by belief. Nations are not like mountains, rivers, or buildings that exist independently of human thought — they are not things which exist independent of the beliefs that people have about them. To speak of a people as a nation is to make a claim about the beliefs and self-understanding of that people. This is illustrated by the Indian case. The claim that India has had a long and continuing history as a civilisation, and that this civilisational continuity is the basis of the Indian nation, is fundamentally a claim rooted in belief and collective memory. Jawaharlal Nehru, in his book The Discovery of India, wrote: "Though outwardly there was diversity and infinite variety among the people, everywhere there was that tremendous impress of oneness, which held all of us together in ages past, whatever political fate or misfortune had befallen us." Territory is another element of nationhood — nations are associated with specific geographical homelands. Beyond territory and shared belief, a nation is strengthened when its people acknowledge and accept their obligations to their fellow members. Recognition of this framework of mutual obligations is described in the text as the strongest test of loyalty to the nation. Democratic states are also expected to forge national identity on the basis of shared political ideals — values that may be enshrined in the Constitution — rather than on adherence to a particular religion, race, or language.