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In the wake of the Revolt of 1857 (First War of Independence/Sepoy Mutiny), the British Parliament enacted the Government of India Act of 1858, abolishing the East India Company and transferring all powers to the British Crown. This marked the beginning of the Crown Rule period (1858–1947), during which India was directly governed by the British monarch. During this period, a series of Acts progressively introduced representative institutions and responsible government, culminating in the Indian Independence Act of 1947. **Government of India Act of 1858** — Ended Company rule. Changed Governor-General of India's title to Viceroy (first Viceroy: Lord Canning). Created Secretary of State for India (member of British Cabinet, responsible to British Parliament). Established 15-member Council of India to assist Secretary of State. Abolished Board of Control and Court of Directors (ending 'double government'). India to be governed in name of the Crown. The Act was largely confined to improvement of administrative machinery in England and did not substantially alter the system of Government in India. **Indian Councils Act of 1861** — First step toward representative institutions — Indians associated with law-making. Viceroy could nominate Indians as non-official members. In 1862, Lord Canning nominated the Raja of Benaras, the Maharaja of Patiala, and Sir Dinkar Rao to his legislative council. Initiated decentralisation by restoring legislative powers to Bombay and Madras. Empowered Viceroy to issue ordinances during emergency (life: 6 months). Recognised 'portfolio' system introduced by Lord Canning in 1859. Provided for establishment of new legislative councils for Bengal (1862), North-Western Provinces (1886) and Punjab (1897). **Indian Councils Act of 1892** — Increased non-official members in legislative councils. Gave councils power to discuss budget and address questions to the executive. Introduced indirect/limited nomination (functionally similar to election, but word 'election' not used). Made limited and indirect provision for use of election in filling some non-official seats. **Indian Councils Act of 1909** (Morley-Minto Reforms) — Morley was Secretary of State; Minto was Viceroy. Considerably increased size of legislative councils (Central council: 16 to 60 members). Retained official majority at Centre, allowed non-official majority in provinces. First Indian to join Viceroy's Executive Council: Satyendra Prasad Sinha (Law Member). Introduced communal representation for Muslims — 'separate electorate'. Lord Minto known as 'Father of Communal Electorate'. Allowed supplementary questions and resolutions on budget. Provided for separate representation of presidency corporations, chambers of commerce, universities and zamindars. **Government of India Act of 1919** (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) — Montagu: Secretary of State; Chelmsford: Viceroy. British Government declared (Aug 20, 1917) its objective: gradual introduction of responsible government. The declaration stated: "the policy of His Majesty's Government is that of the increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self-government institutions, with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire." Separated central and provincial subjects. Introduced 'dyarchy' in provinces — provincial subjects divided into 'transferred' (administered by Governor with responsible ministers) and 'reserved' (administered by Governor and Executive Council, not responsible to legislature). Introduced bicameralism and direct elections — Indian Legislative Council replaced by bicameral legislature (Upper House: Council of State; Lower House: Legislative Assembly). Extended communal representation to Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans. Separated provincial budgets from Central budget. Created High Commissioner for India in London. Established Central Public Service Commission (1926, on recommendation of Lee Commission 1923-24). Provided for appointment of statutory commission after 10 years. **Simon Commission (1927)** — Seven-member commission under Sir John Simon. All British members — boycotted by all Indian parties. Submitted report 1930: recommended abolition of dyarchy, extension of responsible government in provinces, establishment of federation, continuation of communal electorate. Led to three Round Table Conferences and a White Paper, which fed into the GoI Act 1935. **Communal Award (1932)** — Announced by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. Extended separate electorates to depressed classes (Scheduled Castes). Gandhi fasted unto death in Yerawada Jail (Poona). Resulted in Poona Pact — retained Hindu joint electorate but with reserved seats for depressed classes. **Government of India Act of 1935** — Longest and most detailed (321 Sections, 10 Schedules). Provided for All-India Federation (Centre + provinces + princely states), but federation never formed (princely states did not join). Three legislative lists: Federal (59 items), Provincial (54 items), Concurrent (36 items). Residuary powers: Viceroy. Abolished dyarchy in provinces — introduced 'provincial autonomy'. Responsible government in provinces from 1937 (discontinued 1939). Introduced dyarchy at Centre (never came into operation). Bicameralism in six provinces: Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam, United Provinces. Extended franchise (~10% of population). Established Reserve Bank of India. Established Federal Court (1937). Abolished Council of India (established 1858). Established Federal, Provincial and Joint Public Service Commissions. Extended principle of communal representation by providing separate electorates for depressed classes (Scheduled Castes), women and labour (workers). **Indian Independence Act of 1947** — Clement Atlee declared (Feb 20, 1947) British rule would end by June 30, 1948. June 3, 1947: Mountbatten Plan for partition accepted. Act ended British rule and declared India independent and sovereign from August 15, 1947. Provided for partition — two independent dominions (India and Pakistan), each with right to secede from British Commonwealth. Abolished Viceroy's office — replaced by Governor-General for each dominion. Empowered Constituent Assemblies to frame and adopt any constitution. Abolished Secretary of State for India (functions transferred to Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs). Proclaimed lapse of British paramountcy over Indian princely states. India governed by GoI Act 1935 (with modifications) until new Constitution. Dropped title 'Emperor of India' from British King's titles. First Governor-General of free India: Lord Mountbatten. First PM: Jawaharlal Nehru. Deprived British Monarch of right to veto bills. Governor-General had full power to assent to any bill in the name of His Majesty. Designated Governor-General and provincial governors as constitutional (nominal) heads of states, acting on advice of council of ministers in all matters. Discontinued appointment to civil services and reservation of posts by Secretary of State for India; members of civil services appointed before August 15, 1947 continued to enjoy all benefits.
The British came to India as traders (East India Company, 1600) under a charter from Queen Elizabeth I. In 1765, the Company acquired 'diwani' rights over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, marking its transition to a territorial power. From 1773, Parliament began regulating the Company through a series of Acts. In 1858, after the Revolt of 1857, the British Crown directly assumed governance of India. The period 1773–1858 is called the Company Rule. During this period, a succession of Acts progressively centralised power, established a framework of governance, and subjected the Company to increasing Crown control. **Key Acts of the Company Rule Period:** **Regulating Act of 1773** — First Act to regulate Company affairs. Designated Governor of Bengal as 'Governor-General of Bengal' (first: Lord Warren Hastings). Made governors of Bombay and Madras subordinate to Bengal. Established Supreme Court at Calcutta (1774) with one Chief Justice and three judges. Prohibited Company servants from private trade or receiving bribes. **Amending Act of 1781** (Act of Settlement) — Exempted Governor-General and Council from Supreme Court jurisdiction for official acts. Excluded revenue matters from Supreme Court jurisdiction. Required courts to apply personal law of defendants (Hindu law for Hindus, Mohammedan law for Muslims). **Pitt's India Act of 1784** — Distinguished commercial and political functions of the Company. Created a Board of Control to manage political affairs (Court of Directors continued for commercial affairs). Established 'double government'. British territories in India were for the first time called 'British possessions in India'. **Act of 1786** — Lord Cornwallis given power to override Council decisions and serve as Commander-in-Chief simultaneously. **Charter Act of 1793** — Extended overriding power to all future Governor-Generals. Gave Governor-General more control over Bombay and Madras. Extended Company trade monopoly for 20 years. Members of Board of Control to be paid from Indian revenues. **Charter Act of 1813** — Abolished the Company's trade monopoly in India (except tea and China trade). Asserted British Crown's sovereignty over Company territories. Allowed Christian missionaries into India. Provided for spread of western education. **Charter Act of 1833** — Made Governor-General of Bengal the Governor-General of India with all civil and military powers (first: Lord William Bentick). Final step towards centralisation. Ended Company as a commercial body (became purely administrative). Attempted open competition for civil servants (blocked by Court of Directors). Laws made under previous acts were called 'Regulations'; laws under this Act called 'Acts'. **Charter Act of 1853** — Last Charter Act. Separated legislative and executive functions of Governor-General's Council. Established separate Governor-General's Legislative Council (Indian Central Legislative Council). Introduced open competition for civil services (Macaulay Committee, 1854). Did not specify period of Company's tenure — Parliament could terminate at any time. Introduced local representation in Central Legislative Council (four members from Madras, Bombay, Bengal and Agra).