Division of Powers — Union, State, and Concurrent Lists
›Three lists: Union List (exclusively central), State List (States), Concurrent List (both; central prevails in conflict).
›Seventh Schedule of the Constitution contains these three lists.
›Residuary powers with Parliament (unlike USA where they are with States).
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The Indian Constitution clearly demarcates subjects which are under the exclusive domain of the Union and those under the States. This is the core of the federal division of legislative powers. Two sets of government are created by the Constitution: the union government (for the entire nation) and State governments (for each unit). Both have a constitutional status and clearly identified areas of activity.
If there is any dispute about which powers come under the control of the Union and which under States, this is resolved by the Judiciary on the basis of constitutional provisions.
**Three Lists (Seventh Schedule):**
- **Union List:** Subjects that concern the nation as a whole — e.g., defence, currency, foreign affairs, atomic energy. The Union alone can legislate on these.
- **State List:** Regional or local matters — e.g., public order, police, public health, agriculture, local government. States can legislate on these normally.
- **Concurrent List:** Subjects where both the Union and States can legislate — e.g., education, forests, trade unions, marriage, adoption. In case of conflict, the Union law prevails.
**An important asymmetry:** Economic and financial powers are centralised in the hands of the central government by the Constitution. States have immense responsibilities but very meagre revenue sources. Items generating revenue are predominantly under central control.
**Parliament legislating on State List:**
- During a national emergency, Parliament can make laws on State List subjects.
- If the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution (by 2/3 majority of members present and voting) declaring it necessary in the national interest, Parliament can legislate on State List subjects even in normal times.
- If two or more States request Parliament to legislate on a State List subject, Parliament can do so for those States.
**Article 33 and 34:** Authorize Parliament to protect persons in service of Union or State during martial law to maintain or restore order. The Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) is based on this provision.
**Residuary powers:** Subjects not enumerated in any list fall under Parliament's jurisdiction — unlike the US model where residuary powers lie with States.
**Special provisions for some States:** The Constitution provides a division of powers common to all States, but special provisions exist for north-eastern States (Art. 371), J&K (Art. 370), and some others (Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Sikkim) due to peculiar social and historical circumstances.
**Jammu and Kashmir (Art. 370, now abrogated in 2019):** Union and Concurrent Lists could only apply with J&K State government's concurrence. J&K had its own constitution and flag.
All key facts
›Three lists: Union List (exclusively central), State List (States), Concurrent List (both; central prevails in conflict).
›Seventh Schedule of the Constitution contains these three lists.
›Residuary powers with Parliament (unlike USA where they are with States).
›Economic and financial powers are heavily centralised — States are revenue-poor.
›During emergency: Parliament can legislate on State List subjects.
›Rajya Sabha can authorise Parliament to legislate on State List in national interest.
›Art. 371: Special provisions for northeastern States (Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram etc.).
›Art. 370: Special status for J&K (distinct from other States) — concurrence needed for Union/Concurrent List laws.
›AFSPA based on Articles 33 and 34.
apmc agricultural marketinggm crops and agriculture policygreen revolution and food securitymsp and agricultural pricingpm kisan and income supportrural development credit diversification
Centre-State Relations
›Article 1: India shall be a Union of States (the word "federation" is absent).
›India has single citizenship — not dual citizenship.
›Parliament can alter State boundaries and names (with consultation of State legislature concerned).
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Federalism in India is an institutional mechanism to accommodate two sets of polities — one at the regional (State) level and one at the national level — each autonomous in its own sphere. Unlike some federal countries, India does not have a system of dual citizenship — there is only a single citizenship. The Constitution of India does not even use the word "federation." Article 1 describes India as "a Union of States."
The Indian Constitution has created a strong central government, departing from classical federal theory in significant ways. The key reasons: India at independence needed to integrate more than 500 princely states, prevent disintegration, handle socio-economic problems (poverty, illiteracy, inequality), and ensure coordinated planning.
**Provisions giving the Centre a stronger role involve an intricate interplay of legislative, administrative, and financial functions:**
1. Parliament can form a new State, alter boundaries of existing States, or change their names (subject to consulting the concerned State legislature).
2. Emergency provisions can turn the federal polity into a highly centralised system — Parliament can make laws on subjects in the State List during emergency.
3. Items generating revenue are largely under central control; States are mostly dependent on grants and financial assistance from the centre.
4. The Planning Commission (appointed by the Union government) controls and supervises resource management of States.
5. The Union government can give discretionary grants and loans to States — potentially used discriminatorily against States ruled by opposition parties.
6. The Governor can recommend dismissal of the State government and dissolution of the Assembly. The Governor can also reserve a bill passed by the State legislature for the President's assent, allowing the Centre to delay or veto State legislation.
7. If ratified by the Rajya Sabha, the central government can legislate on matters from the State List.
8. Article 257: The executive power of every State shall not impede or prejudice the exercise of the Union executive power; the Union can give directions to States.
9. All-India Services (IAS, IPS) are common to the entire territory — their officers are under the ultimate control of the central government; States cannot remove them.
**Evolution of Centre-State Relations:**
- 1950s–early 1960s: Congress dominance at centre and in most States; relatively smooth relations.
- Mid-1960s onwards: Opposition parties came to power in several States; demands for greater autonomy emerged.
- Post-1990s: Coalition era at the centre; greater say for States, more mature federalism.
**Demands for Autonomy include:** (a) greater legislative powers for States; (b) financial autonomy (independent revenue sources); (c) administrative autonomy (control over administrative machinery); (d) cultural/linguistic autonomy (e.g., opposition to Hindi imposition).
The Sarkaria Commission (appointed 1983, report 1988) examined centre-State relations and recommended that Governor appointments should be strictly non-partisan.
**Centre-State Relations Structure:**
The Constitution divides all powers (legislative, executive and financial) between the Centre and the states. The three dimensions of Centre-state relations are: (1) Legislative relations; (2) Administrative relations; and (3) Financial relations. There is no division of judicial power as the Constitution has established an integrated judicial system to enforce both Central laws as well as state laws.
Though the Centre and the states are supreme in their respective fields, maximum harmony and coordination between them is essential for the effective operation of the federal system.
**Inter-State Relations:**
The successful functioning of the Indian federal system depends not only on harmonious Centre-state relations but also on cooperation between the states themselves. The Constitution provides four key mechanisms for inter-state comity: (1) adjudication of inter-state water disputes; (2) coordination through inter-state councils; (3) mutual recognition of public acts, records, and judicial proceedings; and (4) freedom of inter-state trade, commerce, and intercourse. In addition, Zonal Councils (statutory bodies established under the States Reorganisation Act of 1956) and the North-Eastern Council promote inter-state cooperation and coordination.
**National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC):**
The NCRWC was established in 2000 to examine how the existing constitutional provisions could meet governance needs and socio-economic development requirements while maintaining parliamentary democracy and the 'basic structure' of the Constitution. Headed by M.N. Venkatachaliah (former Chief Justice of India), the 11-member Commission submitted its report in 2002. Among its eleven areas of study, Union-State relations was identified as a key focus area. The Commission's assessment of 50 years of constitutional working (1950–2000) identified both achievements (democratic stabilization, economic and social infrastructure development) and substantial failures (political decay due to electoral ineptness, economic inequality, social failures, administrative corruption, and judicial system delays), concluding that "the fifty years of the working of the Constitution is substantially a saga of missed opportunities." The Commission made 249 recommendations: 58 involving constitutional amendments, 86 requiring legislative measures, and 105 achievable through executive action.
All key facts
›Article 1: India shall be a Union of States (the word "federation" is absent).
›India has single citizenship — not dual citizenship.
›Parliament can alter State boundaries and names (with consultation of State legislature concerned).
›During emergency, Parliament can legislate on State List subjects.
›Article 257: Union executive power is superior; Centre can give directions to States.
›All-India Services officers serve States but are under central government control.
›Coalition era (post-1990s): more balanced centre-State relations.
›Left Front (West Bengal, 1977): brought out document demanding restructuring of centre-State relations.
›The term 'federation' is derived from the Latin word 'foedus', meaning 'treaty' or an 'agreement'. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›Dr. B.R. Ambedkar stated that the phrase 'Union of States' was preferred to 'Federation of States' to indicate that the Indian federation is not the result of an agreement among states and that states have no right to secede. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Indian federal system is based on the 'Canadian model', which establishes a very strong centre, differing from the 'American model'. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
citizen and nation statecitizenship equality and rightsnature of citizenshipborrowed featuresconstituent assemblyequality political and social
President's Rule — Article 356
›Article 356: Provides for President's Rule when State cannot be governed per constitutional provisions.
›Proclamation must be ratified by Parliament; can be extended to three years.
›Governor can recommend dismissal of State government and dissolution of Assembly.
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Article 356 is described as one of the most controversial articles in the Constitution. It provides for President's Rule (also called Central Rule, State Emergency, or Constitutional Emergency) in any State when "a situation has arisen in which the Government of the State cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution." When invoked, it results in the takeover of the State government by the Union government.
**Procedure:**
- The President issues a proclamation (usually on the Governor's recommendation, though the President can act even without the Governor's report).
- The proclamation must be ratified by Parliament within two months.
- President's Rule can be extended up to three years maximum (with parliamentary approval every six months).
- The Governor has the power to recommend the dismissal of the State government and suspension or dissolution of the State Assembly.
**History of misuse:**
- Article 356 was used sparingly until 1967.
- After 1967, many States had non-Congress governments while Congress was in power at the Centre. The Centre frequently used this provision to dismiss State governments or used the Governor's office to prevent majority parties/coalitions from forming government.
- Notable instances: Kerala (1959) — State government dismissed even though it had a majority in the legislature. Several States after 1967 saw dismissals without testing legislative majority.
- In the 1980s, elected governments in Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir were removed by the central government.
- In 1977, when the Janata Party came to power at the Centre after elections, it imposed President's Rule in nine Congress-ruled states on the ground that the assemblies no longer represented the wishes of the electorate. When Congress returned in 1980, it did the same in nine states.
- In 1992, President's Rule was imposed in three BJP-ruled states (Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan) on the ground that they were not implementing the ban on religious organisations.
**Judicial check:**
The Supreme Court has ruled that the constitutional validity of the decision to impose President's Rule can be examined by the judiciary. The S.R. Bommai case (1994) established that the President's satisfaction must be based on relevant material, and the court can examine whether the action was based on irrelevant, extraneous, or malafide grounds. This has provided some check on arbitrary use of Article 356.
**Role of the Governor:**
The Governor is not an elected officeholder. Many Governors have been retired military officers, civil servants, or politicians. The Governor is appointed by the central government, so actions of the Governor are often viewed as interference by the central government in State functioning. When different parties are in power at the Centre and in the State, the Governor's role becomes even more controversial.
**Sarkaria Commission (1983, report 1988):** Examined centre-State relations and recommended that Governor appointments should be strictly non-partisan. The Commission was appointed because of the growing controversy over the use of Article 356.
**Constitutional Evolution:**
The 38th Amendment Act of 1975 made the President's satisfaction final and conclusive, but the 44th Amendment Act of 1978 deleted this provision, making it subject to judicial review and introducing safeguards against misuse.
All key facts
›Article 356: Provides for President's Rule when State cannot be governed per constitutional provisions.
›Proclamation must be ratified by Parliament; can be extended to three years.
›Governor can recommend dismissal of State government and dissolution of Assembly.
›Used sparingly till 1967; became politically controversial after 1967 due to Congress dominance at Centre vs. opposition-ruled States.
›Kerala (1959): first notable instance — State government dismissed with legislative majority.
›In 1959, the Congress government at the Centre dismissed the Communist government in Kerala under Article 356.
›The 1959 dismissal of the Kerala government was controversial and widely cited as a prominent instance of the misuse of constitutional emergency powers.
›SC can examine constitutional validity of President's Rule imposition.
›Governor: not elected; appointed by central government; highly controversial role in federal politics.
›Article 355 imposes a duty on the Centre to ensure every state government is carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. President's Rule under Article 356 is performed in discharge of this duty. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
borrowed featuresconstituent assemblyequality political and socialfunctions of constitutionpreamblecentre state relations
Cooperative Federalism
›Cooperative Federalism involves the Centre and State governments working together as equals to achieve national objectives. (ch54-niti-aayog.md, p. 14)
›The NITI Aayog was constituted to actualize the goal of cooperative federalism and enable good governance. (ch54-niti-aayog.md, p. 14)
›The principle recognizes that strong States contribute to making a strong nation. (ch54-niti-aayog.md, p. 3, 14)
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Cooperative Federalism is a principle that emphasizes a collaborative approach between the Centre and State governments to achieve national objectives. It moves away from a "command and control" or "top-down" model, instead seeking a genuine and continuous partnership where states are empowered as equal partners in national development. The NITI Aayog was established with the explicit aim of operationalizing this principle, fostering cooperative federalism through structured support initiatives and mechanisms with the states. It involves a joint focus on the National Development Agenda by both the Centre and the States, along with the advocacy of State perspectives with Central Ministries. This approach ensures that states are equal stakeholders in the planning and policy-making process for national development.
All key facts
›Cooperative Federalism involves the Centre and State governments working together as equals to achieve national objectives. (ch54-niti-aayog.md, p. 14)
›The NITI Aayog was constituted to actualize the goal of cooperative federalism and enable good governance. (ch54-niti-aayog.md, p. 14)
›The principle recognizes that strong States contribute to making a strong nation. (ch54-niti-aayog.md, p. 3, 14)
›Key features of Cooperative Federalism include a joint focus on the National Development Agenda by the Centre and States, and advocating State perspectives with Central Ministries. (ch54-niti-aayog.md, p. 14)
›NITI Aayog's mandate includes evolving a shared vision of national development priorities and strategies with active State involvement to foster cooperative federalism. (ch54-niti-aayog.md, p. 14)
›Cooperative Federalism aims to progress from a Centre-led development policy to one where States are equal stakeholders in planning. (ch54-niti-aayog.md, p. 14)
›The Team India Hub within NITI Aayog carries out the mandate of fostering Cooperative Federalism. (ch54-niti-aayog.md, p. 8)
›Manifestations of Cooperative Federalism in NITI Aayog's functioning include Governing Council meetings, sub-groups of Chief Ministers, task forces, NITI Forum for North East, and Development Support Services to States. (ch54-niti-aayog.md, p. 15)
Federal System — Features, Unitary Features, and Canadian Model
›'Federation' word NOT used in Constitution; Article 1 says "Union of States"
›Indian federal system based on Canadian model (not American)
›Ambedkar: "The federation is union because it is indestructible"
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A **federal government** divides powers between the national government and the regional governments by the Constitution itself; both operate in their respective jurisdictions independently. A **unitary government** vests all powers in the national government; regional governments derive authority from the national government.
The term 'federation' is derived from the Latin word *foedus* meaning 'treaty' or 'agreement'. A federation is a new state formed through a treaty or agreement among various units.
**Two ways a federation can form:**
1. **Integration:** Weak/small independent states come together to form a union (e.g., USA)
2. **Disintegration:** A big unitary state is converted into a federation by granting autonomy to provinces (e.g., Canada, India)
**USA** is the first and oldest federation (1787, following the American Revolution 1775–83), comprising 50 states (originally 13). It is the model of federation. **Canadian Federation** comprising 10 provinces (originally 4 provinces) was formed in 1867.
**India's federal system:**
- Article 1 describes India as a 'Union of States' (NOT 'Federation of States')
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Phrase 'Union of States' preferred to indicate (i) Indian federation is NOT result of agreement among states (unlike American federation); (ii) states have NO right to secede. "The federation is union because it is indestructible."
- Indian federal system is based on the **Canadian model** (NOT the American model)
- Canadian model = very strong centre; formed by disintegration; uses term 'Union'; has centralising tendency
- The framers adopted the federal system due to the large size of the country and its socio-cultural diversity, aiming for efficient governance and reconciling national unity with regional autonomy.
All key facts
›'Federation' word NOT used in Constitution; Article 1 says "Union of States"
›Indian federal system based on Canadian model (not American)
›Ambedkar: "The federation is union because it is indestructible"
›Residuary powers: Centre (unlike USA where states have residuary powers)
›"Indestructible Union of destructible states" (India) vs "indestructible Union of indestructible states" (USA)
›Single citizenship in India (like Canada); USA/Switzerland/Australia have dual citizenship
›Two federation formation methods: integration (USA) and disintegration (Canada, India)
›42nd Amendment described as 'Mini-Constitution'
›The Constituent Assembly adopted a federal arrangement to distribute governmental powers between the States and the central government. — NCERT Class 11 — Indian Constitution at Work, full-book.md, p.21
›The makers of the Indian Constitution learned from and borrowed from constitutional traditions and experiences of other countries. — NCERT Class 11 — Indian Constitution at Work, full-book.md, p.21
›The Objectives Resolution (1946) defined India as an independent, sovereign, republic and a Union of erstwhile British Indian territories, Indian States, and other willing parts. — NCERT Class 11 — Indian Constitution at Work, full-book.md, p.20
citizen and nation statecitizenship equality and rightsnature of citizenshipborrowed featuresconstituent assemblyequality political and social
›The Indian federation resembles the Canadian federation in its formation (by disintegration), its preference for the term 'Union', and its centralising tendency. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Constitution establishes a dual polity with the Union at the Centre and states at the periphery, each sovereign in their assigned fields. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Constitution is the supreme law, and laws enacted by the Centre and states must conform to its provisions, subject to judicial review by the Supreme Court and High Courts. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The rigidity of the Constitution ensures the division of powers and its supremacy, with federal structure provisions requiring joint action of Central and state governments for amendment (special majority in Parliament + approval of half of state legislatures). — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›An independent judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court, is established to protect the supremacy of the Constitution through judicial review and settle disputes between the Centre and states or among states. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Indian Parliament is bicameral, with the Rajya Sabha representing the states and the Lok Sabha representing the people. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›Rajya Sabha is required to maintain federal equilibrium by protecting state interests against central interference. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Union List (98 subjects), State List (59 subjects), and Concurrent List (52 subjects) define the division of powers. In case of conflict on Concurrent List, central law generally prevails. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›Residuary powers (subjects not in any list) are vested with the Centre, unlike the USA where they are with the states. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›Parliament can unilaterally change the area, boundaries, or name of any state by a simple majority, making the Indian Federation "an indestructible Union of destructible states." — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›India has a single Constitution for both the Centre and the states, unlike federations where states can have their own constitutions. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The constitutional amendment process is less rigid than other federations, with much of the Constitution amendable by Parliament's unilateral action (simple or special majority). — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›Only the Centre can initiate a constitutional amendment. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›Representation in the Rajya Sabha is based on population, leading to unequal representation among states (e.g., 1 to 31 members). — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›Emergency provisions (national, state, financial) allow the Central government to become all-powerful and convert the federal structure into a unitary one without formal amendment. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›India has an integrated judicial system with the Supreme Court at the apex, enforcing both Central and state laws. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›All-India Services (IAS, IPS, IFS) are common to both Centre and states, recruited and trained by the Centre, which also holds ultimate control over them. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India audits accounts of both Central and state governments, with appointment and removal done by the President without state consultation, limiting state financial autonomy. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›Parliament can legislate on any subject of the State List if the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution in the national interest by a special majority, even when there is no emergency. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Governor, head of the state, is appointed by the
›
President's Rule can be proclaimed under two grounds: Article 356 (President's satisfaction that state government cannot be carried on per Constitution, with or without Governor's report) and Article 365 (state fails to comply with or give effect to any direction from the Centre). — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›Parliamentary approval for President's Rule must happen within two months from its issue. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›If Lok Sabha is dissolved during the two-month approval period, the proclamation survives until 30 days from the first sitting of the reconstituted Lok Sabha, provided Rajya Sabha has approved it. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›If approved, President's Rule continues for six months and can be extended for a maximum of three years with parliamentary approval every six months. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›Resolution approving President's Rule or its continuation can be passed by a simple majority in each House of Parliament. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›Extension of President's Rule beyond one year requires two conditions (44th Amendment Act of 1978): a proclamation of National Emergency must be in operation in the whole or part of India/state, AND the Election Commission must certify that general elections cannot be held. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›A proclamation of President's Rule can be revoked by the President at any time by a subsequent proclamation, which does not require parliamentary approval. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›When President's Rule is imposed, the President dismisses the state council of ministers, and the state governor administers on behalf of the President with the help of the chief secretary or advisors. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›The President either suspends or dissolves the state legislative assembly; it is not automatically dissolved. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›During President's Rule, the Parliament passes state legislative bills and the state budget. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›The constitutional position, status, powers, and functions of the concerned state high court remain unchanged during President's Rule. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›Laws made during President's Rule continue to be operative even after the rule ends, until repealed, altered, or re-enacted by the state legislature. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›S.R. Bommai Case (1994): Supreme Court ruled that the presidential proclamation imposing President's Rule is subject to judicial review, and the satisfaction of the President must be based on relevant material. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›In the Bommai case, the SC held that the state legislative assembly should be dissolved only after Parliament has approved the presidential proclamation; until then, the assembly can only be suspended. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›The Bommai case affirmed secularism as a 'basic feature' of the Constitution, making state governments pursuing anti-secular politics liable to Article 356 action. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›The judgement also stated that the question of a state government losing the confidence of the legislative assembly should be decided on the floor of the House. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›The power under Article 356 is an exceptional power and should be used only occasionally to meet the requirements of special situations. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›The 38th Amendment Act of 1975 made the President's satisfaction in invoking Article 356 final and conclusive, but the 44th Amendment Act of 1978 deleted this provision, making it subject to judicial review. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch16-emergency-provisions.md
›The first imposition of President's Rule was in Punjab in 1951. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition
›The Objectives Resolution also stipulated that territories forming the Union would be autonomous units, exercising powers and functions of government and administration, except those assigned to or vested in the Union. — NCERT Class 11 — Indian Constitution at Work, full-book.md, p.20
›The units of a federation are known by various names such as states (US), cantons (Switzerland), provinces (Canada), or republics (Russia). — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The US is the first and oldest federation, formed in 1787, and originally comprised 13 states. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Canadian Federation was formed in 1867 and originally comprised 4 provinces. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Indian federal system resembles the Canadian federation in its formation (by disintegration), its preference for the term 'Union', and its centralising tendency. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Indian Constitution establishes an independent judiciary headed by the Supreme Court to protect legal supremacy and settle disputes. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Rajya Sabha is required to maintain federal equilibrium by protecting the interests of the states against central interference. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India audits the accounts of both the Central government and the states, but his appointment and removal are by the President without consulting the states. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Election Commission of India controls elections at both Central and state levels, but it is constituted by the President, and states have no say in its composition or removal of members. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Supreme Court in the Bommai case (1994) described federalism as a 'basic feature' of the Constitution. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The federal model of government is followed in US, Switzerland, Australia, Canada, Russia, Brazil, and Argentina. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The unitary model of government is followed in Britain, France, Japan, China, Italy, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, and Spain. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›In a federal model, the national government is known as the Federal government, Central government, or Union government. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›In a federal model, the regional government is known as the state government or provincial government. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Constitution of India not only embodies the Constitution of the Centre but also those of the states. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The American Constitution originally consisted of only 7 Articles, the Australian 128, and the Canadian 147. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›The Indian federal system has been described as "quasi-federal" by K.C. Wheare. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›K.C. Wheare remarked that the "Indian Union is a unitary state with subsidiary federal features rather than a federal state with subsidiary unitary features." — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›K. Santhanam identified two factors responsible for the unitary bias of the Constitution: the Centre's financial dominance and the influence of the (erstwhile) Planning Commission. — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›Paul Appleby characterized the Indian system as "extremely federal". — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›Morris Jones termed the Indian system as a "bargaining federalism". — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›Ivor Jennings described India as a "federation with a strong centralising tendency". — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-system.md
›Alexandrowicz stated that "India is a case sui generis" (unique in character). — M. Laxmikanth — Indian Polity (6th Edition, 2019), ch13-federal-syst