›Shifting cultivation is practiced in parts of the virgin tropical rain forests. (p. 152)
›It is undertaken by "more advanced" primitive people in these equatorial forest regions. (p. 152-153)
›Crops grown in the clearings include manioc (tapioca), yams, maize, bananas, and groundnuts. (p. 153)
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Shifting cultivation is an agricultural practice primarily observed in parts of the virgin tropical rainforests. This method is practiced by more advanced primitive peoples residing in equatorial forest regions. It involves clearing sections of the forest, within which crops such as manioc (tapioca), yams, maize, bananas, and groundnuts are grown.
A defining characteristic of shifting cultivation is its cyclical nature: once the soil fertility of a cleared plot is exhausted, the cultivators abandon that area and move on to clear and cultivate a new plot. When these clearings are abandoned, they are often succeeded by less luxuriant secondary forests, known as 'belukar' in Malaysia. The initial heavy yields from newly cleared plots, referred to as 'ladangs' by shifting cultivators, demonstrate early soil fertility. However, this fertility is short-lived. Once the natural humus is depleted and the vegetative cover is removed, the torrential downpours characteristic of these regions rapidly wash out most of the soil nutrients, leading to swift soil deterioration, erosion, and impoverishment. This farming practice is noted to be becoming increasingly widespread, even among backward tribes.
All key facts
›Shifting cultivation is practiced in parts of the virgin tropical rain forests. (p. 152)
›It is undertaken by "more advanced" primitive people in these equatorial forest regions. (p. 152-153)
›Crops grown in the clearings include manioc (tapioca), yams, maize, bananas, and groundnuts. (p. 153)
›Clearings are abandoned when soil fertility is exhausted, and cultivators move to a new plot. (p. 153)
›Abandoned clearings give rise to less luxuriant secondary forests, termed 'belukar' in Malaysia. (p. 152)
›Newly cleared plots by shifting cultivators are referred to as 'ladangs'. (p. 154)
›Initial croppings in newly cleared 'ladangs' are heavy, indicating early soil fertility. (p. 154)
›After the humus is used and natural vegetative cover is removed, tropical soils deteriorate rapidly due to torrential downpours washing out nutrients, leading to soil erosion and impoverishment. (p. 154)
›This farming practice is becoming more widespread even among backward tribes. (p. 153)
Challenges to Development in Equatorial Regions
›Excessive heat and high humidity in equatorial climates subject humans to serious physical and mental handicaps (p. 154).
›People perspire profusely and lose vigour and energy in the enervating equatorial environment (p. 154).
›Dangers like sunstroke and diseases such as malaria and yellow fever are prevalent in equatorial regions (p. 154).
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Equatorial regions face significant challenges to development primarily due to their characteristic hot, wet climate and its ecological ramifications. Human health is adversely affected by excessive heat and high humidity, leading to physical and mental handicaps, reduced vigour, and susceptibility to conditions like sunstroke and diseases such as malaria and yellow fever. The same climate that promotes rapid plant growth also encourages the proliferation of insect pests and bacteria, which not only spread diseases but also cause injury to crops, plaguing both humans and animals.
The dense and luxuriant jungle itself presents a major obstacle, being difficult and costly to clear for infrastructure development like roads and railways, and requiring continuous, high-cost maintenance against rapid regrowth of tall grass (lalang) and thick undergrowth. Furthermore, remote areas within these regions often lack modern communication lines, relying mainly on rivers as natural highways. Tropical soils, contrary to popular belief, rapidly deteriorate once the natural vegetative cover is removed and humus is depleted, as torrential downpours wash out essential nutrients, leading to erosion and impoverishment. Commercial activities such as lumbering are difficult due to the multi-species nature of forests, the absence of frozen surfaces for logging, and the non-floating nature of many tropical hardwoods. Livestock farming is also severely constrained by the lack of nutritious meadow grass and the presence of deadly diseases in animals, such as ngana caused by tsetse flies in Africa.
All key facts
›Excessive heat and high humidity in equatorial climates subject humans to serious physical and mental handicaps (p. 154).
›People perspire profusely and lose vigour and energy in the enervating equatorial environment (p. 154).
›Dangers like sunstroke and diseases such as malaria and yellow fever are prevalent in equatorial regions (p. 154).
›Human capacity for active work is greatly reduced, and resistance to diseases is much weakened in these conditions (p. 154).
›The hot, wet climate encourages the spread of insects and pests (p. 154).
›Germs and bacteria are more easily transmitted through moist air, making equatorial conditions ideal for their survival (p. 154).
›Insects and pests spread diseases and are injurious to crops, plaguing both men and animals (p. 154).
›The luxuriant jungle is a significant problem to clear and even more difficult to maintain (p. 154).
›Lalang (tall grass) and thick undergrowth rapidly spring up when shade trees are cut, potentially choking and killing crops if not regularly weeded (p. 154).
›Roads and railways constructed through equatorial lands cut through dense forests, thickets, and swamps, with builders encountering wild animals, poisonous snakes, and insects (p. 154).
›Infrastructure in equatorial regions requires high maintenance costs once completed (p. 154).
Human Life and Economic Activities in Deserts
›Deserts are inhabited by various groups despite being deficient in water, food, and other means of livelihood.
›Desert inhabitants can be grouped into primitive hunters and collectors, nomadic herdsmen, caravan traders, settled cultivators, and mining settlers.
›**Primitive Hunters and Collectors:**
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Deserts, despite their inhospitable environment characterized by water scarcity and challenges to livelihood, have always been inhabited by various groups of people. These inhabitants have developed diverse strategies to survive and thrive, broadly categorized into five types: primitive hunters and collectors, nomadic herdsmen, caravan traders, settled cultivators, and mining settlers.
Primitive hunters and collectors, such as the Bushmen of the Kalahari and the Bindibu of Australia, are nomadic, do not practice agriculture, and do not domesticate animals. They subsist by hunting local fauna and gathering wild plants, employing unique methods for water collection. Nomadic herdsmen, like the Bedouin of Arabia, Tuaregs of the Sahara, and Gobi Mongols, rely on livestock for their sustenance and wealth, trading animal products for other necessities. Caravan traders were historically crucial, using camels, known as 'ships of the desert,' to transport goods across vast distances for trade, although their role has diminished with modern transport.
Settled cultivators establish life around sources of irrigation such as oases, rivers, or dams, utilizing canal networks to grow crops like date palms, maize, barley, and cotton. Major river systems like the Nile, Indus, Tigris-Euphrates, and Colorado support large agricultural populations in desert regions. Lastly, the discovery of mineral wealth, including gold, diamonds, copper, sodium nitrate, silver, and uranium, has led to the establishment of mining settlements. More recently, the vast oil reserves in regions like the Saharan and Arabian Deserts have profoundly transformed the landscape and economy, fostering rapid development and modern infrastructure.
All key facts
›Deserts are inhabited by various groups despite being deficient in water, food, and other means of livelihood.
›Desert inhabitants can be grouped into primitive hunters and collectors, nomadic herdsmen, caravan traders, settled cultivators, and mining settlers.
›**Primitive Hunters and Collectors:**
›Examples include the Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert and the Bindibu (Aborigines) of Australia.
›They are nomadic hunters and food gatherers, growing no crops and domesticating no animals.
›Bushmen hunt antelope and smaller animals; women and children collect insects, rodents, lizards, honey, roots, grass, and grubs.
›Bushmen gather dew from leaves and suck water from damp sand through hollow reeds.
›Bindibu track kangaroos, rabbits, and birds, sometimes using dingoes; women gather grass, roots, seeds, berries, moles, and insects.
›Bindibu stay close to water supplies, unlike Bushmen who have devised means of tapping and storing water.
›**Nomadic Herdsmen:**
›This group pursues a livestock economy and rides animals.
›Examples include the Bedouin of Arabia (horses), Tuaregs of the Sahara (camels), and Gobi Mongols (yaks and horses).
World Population — Distribution, Density, and Growth
›90% of world population lives in just 10% of land area
›Densely populated regions: North-eastern USA, North-western Europe, South/South-East/East Asia
›Sparsely populated regions: Polar areas, hot and cold deserts, high rainfall zones near equator
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The world's population is unevenly distributed — broadly, 90 per cent of the world population lives in about 10 per cent of its land area. The 10 most populous countries contribute about 60 per cent of the world's population; of these, 6 are located in Asia.
**Factors Influencing Population Distribution:**
Geographical Factors:
- Availability of water: River valleys are among the most densely populated areas; people prefer easy access to fresh water for drinking, agriculture, and industries
- Landforms: People prefer flat plains and gentle slopes for crop production and infrastructure; mountainous areas hinder transport and tend to be sparsely populated. The Ganga plains are among the most densely populated areas; Himalayan mountain zones are scarcely populated
- Climate: Extreme climates (hot/cold deserts) are uncomfortable; areas with comfortable climate attract more population. Mediterranean regions were inhabited from early periods due to pleasant climate
- Soils: Fertile loamy soils support intensive agriculture and denser settlement
Economic Factors:
- Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits attract industries and skilled workers (Katanga-Zambia copper belt)
- Urbanisation: Cities offer better employment, education, medical facilities, and transport — driving rural-urban migration
- Industrialisation: Industrial belts attract workers across occupations (Kobe-Osaka region, Japan)
**Population Growth:**
- Natural growth = Births – Deaths
- Actual growth = Births – Deaths + In-migration – Out-migration
- Crude Birth Rate (CBR) = live births per 1,000 population per year
- Crude Death Rate (CDR) = deaths per 1,000 population per year
The world population has been doubling progressively faster. It took more than a million years to reach 1 billion; then from 5 billion to 6 billion took only 12 years. The world population at the start of the 21st century was over 6 billion.
**Demographic Transition Theory:**
Describes population change as society progresses from rural-agrarian-illiterate to urban-industrial-literate:
- Stage 1: High birth rate, high death rate — slow growth (pre-industrial societies)
- Stage 2: High birth rate, declining death rate — rapid growth/population explosion (developing countries in transition)
- Stage 3: Low birth rate, low death rate — stable or slow growth (developed countries)
All key facts
›90% of world population lives in just 10% of land area
›Densely populated regions: North-eastern USA, North-western Europe, South/South-East/East Asia
›Sparsely populated regions: Polar areas, hot and cold deserts, high rainfall zones near equator
›Africa has the highest population growth rate; Europe has near-zero or negative growth
›Population growth is negatively correlated with economic development
›Human population increased more than 10 times in the past 500 years
›Nearly 80 million people are added to the world each year
›Thomas Malthus (1793): Population grows geometrically; food supply grows arithmetically — positive checks (famine, disease, war) or preventive checks needed
›Doubling times are shrinking: from 1,500 years (10,000 BC to 1650 AD) to 37 years (1975–2012)
›Areas of medium density have 11 to 50 persons per sq km, including Western China, Southern India, Norway, and Sweden.
›Social and Cultural Factors influence population distribution, with places of religious or cultural significance attracting people, while social and political unrest can lead to outward migration. Governments may offer incentives to influence population movement.
›Population change refers to the change in the number of inhabitants of a territory during a specific period, which can be positive or negative.
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Human Development Index — Concept, Measurement, and India
›HDI created by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq in 1990; first UNDP Human Development Report 1990
›Three dimensions of HDI: health (life expectancy), education (literacy + enrolment), income (purchasing power) — each weighted 1/3
›Score range: 0 to 1 (higher = better human development)
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The concept of human development was introduced by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq (Pakistani economist) in 1990. He described human development as "development that enlarges people's choices and improves their lives." People are central to all development under this concept.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has published the Human Development Report annually since 1990.
**Growth vs Development:**
- Growth is quantitative and value-neutral (can be positive or negative)
- Development is qualitative change — always positive improvement in quality of life
**Four Pillars of Human Development:**
1. **Equity**: Equal access to opportunities regardless of gender, race, income, or caste
2. **Sustainability**: Continuity in availability of opportunities; each generation must have the same opportunities as the previous one
3. **Productivity**: Human labour productivity; people are the real wealth of nations; investments in health and education increase productivity
4. **Empowerment**: Power to make choices through increasing freedom and capability; good governance essential
**Approaches to Human Development:**
- Income Approach: Higher income = higher human development (oldest approach)
- Welfare Approach: Government expenditure on education, health, social services; people are passive recipients
- Basic Needs Approach (proposed by ILO): Six basic needs — health, education, food, water supply, sanitation, housing
- Capability Approach (Amartya Sen): Building human capabilities in health, education, and access to resources
**Measuring HDI:**
The Human Development Index ranks countries based on performance in three key areas:
1. **Health**: Life expectancy at birth (higher = better chance of long, healthy life)
2. **Education**: Adult literacy rate + gross enrolment ratio
3. **Access to Resources**: Purchasing power (in US dollars)
Each dimension has a weight of 1/3. HDI score ranges from 0 to 1; closer to 1 = higher human development.
The Human Poverty Index measures the shortfall in human development (non-income measure) — includes: probability of not surviving till age 40, adult illiteracy rate, lack of access to clean water, and number of underweight children.
**India's HDI:**
India was ranked 127 among 172 countries with a composite HDI value of 0.602 (UNDP 2005) — classified as medium human development. Kerala has the highest state-level HDI (0.638), followed by Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Haryana. Bihar has the lowest (0.367).
All key facts
›HDI created by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq in 1990; first UNDP Human Development Report 1990
›Three dimensions of HDI: health (life expectancy), education (literacy + enrolment), income (purchasing power) — each weighted 1/3
›Score range: 0 to 1 (higher = better human development)
›India's HDI value: 0.602 (2005) — medium human development category
›Kerala has highest HDI among Indian states (0.638)
›Bihar has the lowest HDI among major states (0.367)
›India death rate declined from 25.1/thousand (1951) to 8.1/thousand (1999)
›India life expectancy at birth: 37.1 years (1951) → 62.3 years for males; 36.2 → 65.3 years for females (1999)
›Sri Lanka and Trinidad and Tobago rank higher than India in HDI despite lower per capita income
›The Basic Needs Approach was proposed by the International Labour Organisation (ILO)
›Amartya Sen is associated with the Capability Approach
human capital formationcooperative societiesforeign policynational commission review constitutionnational integrationofficial language
Population Composition — Sex Ratio, Age Structure, and Occupational Structure
›World average sex ratio: 990 females per 1,000 males
›UAE has the lowest sex ratio globally — due to large male migrant workforce
›Latvia has the highest sex ratio globally
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Population composition analyses the attributes of a population — age, sex, literacy, occupation, and place of residence. These characteristics reveal the social and economic development of a region.
**Sex Ratio:**
The ratio between the number of women and men in a population.
- Global average: 990 females per 1,000 males
- Highest sex ratio: Latvia (1,187 females per 1,000 males)
- Lowest sex ratio: UAE (468 females per 1,000 males) — due to selective male migration for work
- India calculates sex ratio as females per 1,000 males
- Asia generally has a low sex ratio (countries: China, India, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan)
- Greater part of Europe (including Russia) has more females than males — due to better status of women and male-dominated out-migration in the past
A low sex ratio may indicate gender discrimination, female foeticide, female infanticide, or lower socio-economic status of women. More women in the population does not necessarily mean better status — it could reflect male out-migration.
**Age Structure:**
- Age group 15–59: Working age population
- Large proportion in 15–59 = large workforce (demographic dividend potential)
- Large proportion above 60 = ageing population; requires more health care
- High proportion of young population = high birth rate, youthful population
**Population Pyramid:**
- Expanding (triangular, wide base): Developing countries — high birth rate, high death rate, young population (e.g., Nigeria)
- Constrictive (narrow base): Declining population — low birth rate (e.g., Germany)
- Stationary (near-uniform): Stable population — birth rate roughly equals death rate
**Occupational Structure:**
- Primary activities: Agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining
- Secondary activities: Manufacturing
- Tertiary activities: Transport, communication, services
- Quaternary activities: Research and development, information
- In developed economies, majority of workers are in tertiary/quaternary sectors
- In developing economies, majority are in primary sector
**Rural-Urban Composition:**
- Rural areas: People engaged in primary activities; smaller settlements; intimate social relations
- Urban areas: Engaged in non-primary activities; larger and compact; complex social relations
- India's Census 1991 definition of urban: Minimum 5,000 persons, at least 75% male workers in non-agricultural pursuits, population density at least 400 persons/sq km
All key facts
›World average sex ratio: 990 females per 1,000 males
›UAE has the lowest sex ratio globally — due to large male migrant workforce
›Latvia has the highest sex ratio globally
›Working age group: 15–59 years
›Triangular (wide-base) population pyramid = high birth rate, young population (developing countries)
›In Western countries, rural areas have more males; urban areas have more females (opposite to India/Asia)
›In India and Asia, urban sex ratio is male-dominated due to male migration to cities
›A country with majority in primary sector activities indicates lower economic development
apmc agricultural marketinggm crops and agriculture policygreen revolution and food securitymsp and agricultural pricingpm kisan and income supportrural development credit diversification
Rural and Urban Settlements — Types, Patterns, and Evolution
›Census 2001: India has 638,588 villages; 593,731 (93%) are inhabited
›States with high % of rural population: Bihar, Sikkim
›States with low % of rural population: Goa, Maharashtra (~51%)
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A human settlement is a cluster of dwellings where human beings live. Settlements range from hamlets to metropolitan cities and vary in size, economic character, social structure, and technology.
**Rural vs Urban Settlements:**
- Rural settlements derive their economic needs from land-based primary activities (agriculture, fishing, forestry)
- Urban settlements depend on secondary (manufacturing) and tertiary (services) activities
- Cities act as nodes of economic growth and provide goods/services to surrounding hinterlands
- Rural people are less mobile; social relations are intimate. Urban life is complex and fast; social relations are formal
**Types of Rural Settlements in India:**
Factors determining type: physical features (terrain, altitude, climate, water availability), cultural and ethnic factors (caste, religion), and security factors.
1. **Clustered (Nucleated/Agglomerated)**: Compact, closely built-up area; general living area separate from surrounding farms. Common in fertile alluvial plains (North India) and north-eastern states. Also found in Rajasthan (water scarcity necessitates compact settlement) and Bundelkhand (security reasons). Geometric shapes: rectangular, radial, linear.
2. **Semi-Clustered (Fragmented)**: One or more sections of village settle slightly away from main cluster — often due to social segregation. Land-owning dominant community occupies central area; lower social strata settle on outer flanks. Common in Gujarat plains and parts of Rajasthan.
3. **Hamleted**: Settlement fragmented into several units with a common name. Units called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani in different regions. Motivated by social and ethnic factors. Common in middle and lower Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh, lower Himalayan valleys.
4. **Dispersed (Isolated)**: Isolated huts or small hamlets in remote areas, jungles, or small hills. Caused by extremely fragmented terrain. Found in Meghalaya, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, and Kerala.
**Urban Settlements in India:**
Evolution: Ancient → Medieval → Modern
- Ancient towns (2,000+ years): Religious and cultural centres — Varanasi, Prayag (Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai
- Medieval towns (~100 towns): Fort towns as headquarters of kingdoms — Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra, Nagpur
- Modern towns: British-developed ports (Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry), then consolidated around Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), Kolkata (Calcutta)
Census of India 1991 definition of urban settlement: Minimum 5,000 persons + at least 75% male workers in non-agricultural pursuits + population density at least 400 persons per sq km.
**World Rural Settlements:**
- Compact/Nucleated: Houses close together along river valleys and fertile plains; closely knit communities
- Water supply is the most important factor in siting rural settlements
- Wet point settlements: Near water bodies; Dry point settlements: Avoiding flood risk
All key facts
›Census 2001: India has 638,588 villages; 593,731 (93%) are inhabited
›States with high % of rural population: Bihar, Sikkim
›States with low % of rural population: Goa, Maharashtra (~51%)
›Urban growth has accelerated since 1931 with economic development
›Maximum urban concentration: Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai
›Hamleted settlements: locally called panna/para (eastern UP/Bihar), palli (South India), nagla (UP), dhani (Rajasthan)
›Clustered settlements are most universal in northern plains
›Dispersed settlements prevalent in hilly/forested areas (Meghalaya, Kerala, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh)
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Transport and Communication Networks
›Trans-Siberian Railway: 9,332 km — world's longest railway
›Rhine waterway: 700 km navigable, Rotterdam (Netherlands) to Basel (Switzerland); world's most heavily used inland waterway
›Air transport: No place more than 35 hours from anywhere; USA = 60% of world's airways
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Transport establishes the network of links and nodes connecting regions for the movement of goods, people, and ideas. Communication enables exchange of information. Together they integrate economic activity over space and are essential to any developed economy.
**Modes of Transport:**
**Land Transport:**
- Roadways: Most common for short distances; flexible; door-to-door service; India has one of the largest road networks. National Highways (NHs) connect state capitals, major cities, and ports.
- Railways: Critical for long-distance freight and passenger movement; transformed economies after Industrial Revolution; Trans-Siberian Railway (9,332 km) is the longest in the world.
**Water Transport:**
- Inland waterways: Rivers, canals, lakes. Dependent on navigability — width, depth, continuous flow. Very heavy cargo (coal, cement, timber, metallic ores) can be transported cheaply. Lost importance in India due to competition from railways, irrigation diversions, and poor maintenance.
- Important inland waterways: Rhine (700 km navigable, from Rotterdam to Basel), Danube (Eastern Europe), Volga (Russia, 11,200 km), Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway (North America), Mississippi-Ohio (USA).
- Ocean routes: Busiest routes are the North Atlantic, Mediterranean-Indian Ocean route, and North Pacific routes.
**Air Transport:**
- Fastest but most expensive
- No place more than 35 hours away in the world
- More than 250 commercial airlines offer regular services
- USA accounts for 60% of world's airways
- Dense air networks: Eastern USA, Western Europe, Southeast Asia
- Supersonic aircraft cover London-New York in 3.5 hours
- Essential for inaccessible areas (Himalayas, remote Arctic regions)
- Major nodal points: New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Rome, Moscow, Karachi, New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangkok, Singapore, Tokyo
**Pipelines:**
Used for transporting liquids and gases (water, petroleum, natural gas) continuously. Big Inch pipeline (USA) carries petroleum from Gulf of Mexico to North-eastern States. About 17% of all freight per tonne-km in USA is via pipelines. Proposed Iran-India (via Pakistan) pipeline would be the world's longest.
New Zealand: milk supplied through pipelines from farms to factories.
**Communication:**
- Telegraph was instrumental in colonisation of American West
- Telephone: AT&T had monopoly in USA until deregulation; telephone critical for urbanisation of America
- Optic Fiber Cables (OFC): First major breakthrough — allow large quantities of data, rapid, secure, virtually error-free
- Internet: Largest electronic network, connecting ~1,000 million people in 100+ countries
- Satellite Communication: Since 1970s; connects remote areas; pioneered by USA and USSR
**Rhine Waterway:**
Most heavily used inland waterway in the world. Navigable for 700 km (Rotterdam to Basel). Ocean-going vessels can reach Cologne. Ruhr coalfield region. Over 20,000 ocean-going ships and 2,00,000 inland vessels use it annually. Connects Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium, Netherlands.
All key facts
›Trans-Siberian Railway: 9,332 km — world's longest railway
›Rhine waterway: 700 km navigable, Rotterdam (Netherlands) to Basel (Switzerland); world's most heavily used inland waterway
›Air transport: No place more than 35 hours from anywhere; USA = 60% of world's airways
›Optic Fiber Cables: Large data, rapid, secure, virtually error-free transmission
›Internet: ~1,000 million people in 100+ countries
›Satellite communication pioneered by USA and USSR since 1970s
›Pipeline Big Inch (USA): petroleum from Gulf of Mexico to north-eastern USA; 17% of freight in USA via pipelines
›Volga waterway (Russia): 11,200 km; drains into Caspian Sea
›Great Lakes: Superior, Huron, Erie, Ontario connected by Soo Canal and Welland Canal
›Air routes are densest in Northern Hemisphere in east-west belt
Hausa Agricultural Systems
›The Hausa are a group of settled cultivators. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 169)
›They inhabit the savannalands of the Bauchi Plateau of northern Nigeria. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 169)
›Their population numbers almost six million. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 169)
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The Hausa are a group of settled cultivators residing in the savannalands of the Bauchi Plateau in northern Nigeria. Numbering almost six million, they have established organized agricultural communities over centuries, demonstrating a more advanced civilization compared to many other African peoples mentioned in the context. Unlike tribes practicing shifting cultivation, the Hausa clear a piece of land and utilize it for several years. When soil fertility diminishes, they move to a new field, allowing the old plot to lie fallow for natural restoration. This practice, combined with crop rotation between different fields throughout the year, is a characteristic technique found in advanced agricultural societies. Their farming year is intrinsically linked to the rainfall season, with seeds sown in late April, crops growing rapidly during the May-September rainy season, and harvesting occurring in September. While primarily crop cultivators, they also keep domesticated animals like cattle, goats, and poultry, which serve as subsidiary sources of milk and meat, with animal manure being used for fertilizing fields.
All key facts
›The Hausa are a group of settled cultivators. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 169)
›They inhabit the savannalands of the Bauchi Plateau of northern Nigeria. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 169)
›Their population numbers almost six million. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 169)
›They have been organized in settled agricultural communities for hundreds of years. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 169)
›The Hausa live in towns or villages, including the ancient city of Kano. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 169)
›They do not practice shifting cultivation. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›They clear a piece of land and use it for several years. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›When fertility declines, they plant a new field and allow the old one to lie fallow to restore fertility. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›They rotate their crops between different fields at different parts of the year. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›They grow a wide range of crops including maize, millet, Guinea corn, groundnuts, bananas, and beans. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
Savanna Agricultural Potential and Challenges
›World population pressure and the need for greater food production necessitate economic development of savanna lands (p. 170).
›Savanna lands with over 760 mm (30 inches) annual rainfall and no severe cold can support a wide range of tropical crops (p. 170).
›Pioneer settlements in central Africa, northern Australia, and eastern Brazil demonstrate the savanna's immense potential for plantation agriculture (p. 170).
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The savanna lands hold significant agricultural potential, which is increasingly vital due to world population pressure and the need for enhanced food production. These regions, characterized by over 760 mm (30 inches) of annual rainfall and an absence of severe cold, are capable of supporting a diverse range of tropical crops. Pioneer settlements in areas like central Africa, northern Australia, and eastern Brazil have demonstrated the immense capacity of savannas for plantation agriculture, including crops such as cotton, sugar cane, coffee, oil palm, groundnuts, and various tropical fruits. Countries like Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and Malawi have undertaken large-scale production of cotton and sisal hemp, crops well-suited to savanna conditions. Furthermore, commercial cultivation of groundnuts, oil palm, and cocoa has expanded into West African savannas, with ongoing efforts to introduce drought-resistant varieties to boost foreign earnings. Cooler highland areas within savannas have also successfully raised temperate crops, indicating further versatility.
However, farming in savanna regions is fraught with natural hazards. Rainfall unreliability often leads to prolonged and severe droughts, making crop failures disastrous without adequate irrigation, improved crop varieties, and scientific farming techniques tailored for tropical grasslands. The distinct wet and dry seasons of the Sudan Climate contribute to rapid soil fertility deterioration. During the rainy season, torrential downpours cause leaching, washing away critical plant nutrients like nitrates, phosphates, and potash. Conversely, intense heating and evaporation during the dry season deplete soil moisture. This often results in poor lateritic soils across many savanna areas, which are incapable of supporting good crops unless properly conserved through regular manuring, weeding, and careful maintenance.
Cattle rearing, a natural fit for savanna grasslands, also faces hurdles. Native zebu cattle are typically bony, yield limited meat or milk, and are highly susceptible to tropical diseases, such as ngana (sleeping sickness) carried by the tsetse fly. The export of beef or milk from these regions has not been substantial. To improve the cattle industry, introducing temperate breeds (like English Shorthorn, Friesian, or Guernsey) to cross with tropical zebu is considered necessary, along with enhancing grass quality, developing better communication networks, and implementing scientific cattle breeding and disease control. Additionally, traditional attitudes of native herdsmen, such as the Masai, who value cattle for prestige rather than commercial slaughter, pose significant challenges to the modernization and commercialization of the cattle industry.
All key facts
›World population pressure and the need for greater food production necessitate economic development of savanna lands (p. 170).
›Savanna lands with over 760 mm (30 inches) annual rainfall and no severe cold can support a wide range of tropical crops (p. 170).
›Pioneer settlements in central Africa, northern Australia, and eastern Brazil demonstrate the savanna's immense potential for plantation agriculture (p. 170).
›Specific tropical crops suited for savanna conditions include cotton, sugar cane, coffee, oil palm, groundnuts, and tropical fruits (p. 170).
›Tropical Queensland has successfully developed its extensive savanna lands for agriculture despite scarcity of labour (p. 170).
›Newly independent states like Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and Malawi have adopted large-scale production of cotton and sisal hemp, which thrive in savanna conditions (p. 170).
›Commercial cultivation of groundnuts, oil palm, and cocoa has been extended into savanna lands in West Africa (p. 170).
›Introduction of new drought-resistant crop varieties is crucial to increase foreign earnings from tropical raw materials in newly emergent savanna countries (p. 170).
›Temperate crops have been successfully raised in the cooler highland regions of savannas (p. 170).
›Farming in savanna lands is subject to natural hazards, particularly long and trying droughts due to unreliable rainfall (p. 170).
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World Manufacturing Industry — Iron and Steel, Factors, and Industrial Regions
›Industrial Revolution began in Britain, 18th century; coal + iron were twin pillars (p.278)
›Iron and steel = 'most important of all industries' — basis of all other metal industries (p.279)
›Iron and steel requires: iron ore + coke (coking coal) + limestone (flux) + ferro-alloys (p.280)
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Manufacturing industry transforms raw materials into finished goods. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th century Britain — coal for steam power and iron/steel smelting were the twin pillars. Industries are classified into 8 major groups:
1. Iron and steel industry (basis of all ferrous metallurgy)
2. Fuel and power industry
3. Mineral extracting industry (non-ferrous metals)
4. Metallurgical industry (machinery, engineering, automobiles, shipbuilding)
5. Chemicals industry
6. Textiles industry
7. Food processing industry
8. Consumer goods industries
**Factors of industrial location:**
1. **Raw materials**: Proximity reduces transport costs; weight-losing industries locate near materials
2. **Power/Fuel**: Coal and hydropower historically determined location; now electricity more flexible
3. **Labour**: Cheap, skilled or abundant labour attracts industries (e.g. SE Asia textiles)
4. **Transport**: Railways, ports, roads enable assembly of inputs and distribution of outputs
5. **Capital**: Investment availability determines scale and technology
6. **Markets**: Consumer demand; industries gravitate toward large population centres
7. **Government policy**: Industrial estates, subsidies, protectionism
8. **Historical/inertia**: Once established, industries remain even when original advantages gone
9. **Climate**: Affects worker productivity; cotton spinning needs humid air (Lancashire)
**Iron and Steel Industry:**
- Requires: Iron ore + Coking coal + Limestone (flux) + Ferro-alloys (Mn, Ni, Cr)
- Originally located on coalfields; now at coastal/waterside locations (import ore)
- Major regions: Ruhr (Germany — imports iron from Sweden, uses local coal); Pennsylvania/Pittsburgh (USA); Sheffield (UK); Donbas/Urals (USSR); Manchuria (China); Jamshedpur (India — Tata Steel)
- Ruhr imports iron ore from Sweden; has local coal and limestone
**Major industrial regions of the world:**
- Western Europe: Rhine-Ruhr, British Midlands, NW England
- North America: Great Lakes, NE USA megalopolis (Boston–Washington corridor)
- Eastern Europe: Donbas, Ural industrial region
- Asia: China (Manchuria, Shanghai), Japan (Tokyo-Osaka belt), India (Damodar Valley)
**Textile industries:**
- Cotton textiles: Lancashire (UK), New England (USA), Ahmedabad/Mumbai (India), Japan, China
- Wool: Yorkshire (UK), Australia (wool production → UK for weaving)
- Silk: Japan, China (traditional centres); synthetic silk now widespread
- Jute: Bengal/Bangladesh (Ganga delta raw material)
All key facts
›Industrial Revolution began in Britain, 18th century; coal + iron were twin pillars (p.278)
›Iron and steel = 'most important of all industries' — basis of all other metal industries (p.279)
›Iron and steel requires: iron ore + coke (coking coal) + limestone (flux) + ferro-alloys (p.280)
›Ruhr (W Germany): abundant coal and limestone but imports iron from Sweden (p.280)
›Cotton textile industry of Bombay based on Deccan cotton fields (p.280)
›Pencil industry of Keswick, Lake District: based on local graphite and timber (p.280)
›Canada's timber/paper industry relies entirely on temperate forests (p.280)
›Sawn timber = <40% of wood in a log — rest is waste (explains why timber industry locates near forests) (p.280)
›Cotton mills in Lancashire need humid air for spinning (historical climate advantage) (p.281, implied)
›Eskimos reside in Greenland, northern Canada, and Alaska. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 235)
›Their current population is less than 28,000. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 235)
›They traditionally lived as hunters, fishers, and food-gatherers. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 235)
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Eskimos are an indigenous group inhabiting the tundra regions of Greenland, northern Canada, and Alaska, numbering less than 28,000 today. Traditionally, they led a semi-nomadic existence, primarily as hunters, fishers, and food-gatherers, adapting to the harsh polar environment. Their nomadic lifestyle was dictated by seasonal climate changes, involving living in compact igloos during winter and pitching portable tents of skins by streams for summer hunting. Their diet relied on fish, seals, walruses, polar bears, and caribou.
In recent decades, their way of life has undergone significant transformation due to contact with Europeans. While some Polar Eskimos in areas like Thule in north-west Greenland still maintain a traditional, uncertain lifestyle, many others have adopted more settled patterns. Modern changes include the establishment of permanent wooden houses with contemporary facilities in coastal villages, the replacement of traditional kayaks with speed-boats, and the use of rifles instead of harpoons for hunting. Furthermore, economic activities have evolved, with fur-bearing animals being reared commercially and fishing becoming commercialized. In more accessible parts of Canada and Alaska, schools have been established to equip Eskimo children with skills for integration into modern society.
All key facts
›Eskimos reside in Greenland, northern Canada, and Alaska. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 235)
›Their current population is less than 28,000. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 235)
›They traditionally lived as hunters, fishers, and food-gatherers. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 235)
›Eskimos lead a semi-nomadic life, adapting to the harsh environment. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 235)
›During winter, they live in compact igloos. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 235)
›In summer, they move out to hunt and pitch portable tents made of skins by streams. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 235)
›Their traditional food sources include fish, seals, walruses, polar bears, and caribou (reindeer in America). (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 235)
›Polar Eskimos around Thule in north-west Greenland still lead a life similar to their ancestors. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 235)
›Contact with Europeans over the last fifty years has led to significant changes in their lifestyle. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 236)
›Coastal villages now feature permanent wooden houses with modern facilities. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 236)
›Speed-boats have replaced traditional frail kayaks. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 236)
›Deadly rifles are now used instead of traditional harpoons for hunting. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 236)
Fuel and Power — Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Energy Sources
›Coal types in order: Anthracite > Steam coal > Coking coal > Gas coal > Lignite > Peat (p.264)
›Anthracite = <5% of world coal output; smokeless; best quality (p.264)
›Coking coal produces coke used in blast furnaces for iron smelting (p.265)
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Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) are non-renewable 'robber industries' — once extracted, cannot be replaced. Coal powered the Industrial Revolution; oil now dominates modern energy. Alternatives include hydro-electricity, tidal power, nuclear, and solar energy.
**Coal Types (descending order of quality/carbon content):**
1. **Anthracite**: Best coal; <5% of world output; hardest; highest hydrocarbon; practically smokeless; used for steam-raising, domestic heating
2. **Bituminous coal**: Most abundant; three subtypes:
- Steam coal: Hard, burns with great heat, used in ships ('bunker coal') and locomotives
- Coking coal: Burned in closed ovens to produce coke for blast furnaces (iron smelting)
- Gas coal: High moisture/volatile matter; produces coal gas and chemicals
3. **Lignite/Brown coal**: Lowest grade; high moisture/ash; smoky; half world's reserves in Germany; used for thermal electricity, domestic heating
4. **Peat**: Initial stage of coal formation; vegetative matter; bogs of Ireland and Scotland
**World coal producers (at time of writing):** USA (24%), USSR (20%), China (20%), Poland (7.5%), UK (5%), W Germany (3.7%).
**China's coal regions:** Shanxi (Shansi) and Shaanxi (Shensi) in N China — called 'second Pennsylvania'; also Sichuan, Hunan, Yunnan, Shandong, Manchuria.
**India's coal:** Mainly Damodar Basin (Raniganj).
**Petroleum:**
- Organic origin; occurs in pore spaces of sedimentary rocks; usually in dome-shaped anticline structures (oil trap)
- Products: petrol/gasoline, diesel, kerosene, aviation fuel, lubricants, bitumen, petrochemicals
- Major oil producers: Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Iraq), USA, Russia, Venezuela, Nigeria, Libya
- Key world oil basins: Persian Gulf (largest reserves), Siberia, North Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo (Venezuela)
**Natural Gas:** Often associated with petroleum; clean-burning; major reserves in Russia, Middle East, North America.
**Hydro-electricity (HEP):** Renewable; requires reliable river with steep gradient; major projects: Three Gorges Dam (China), Itaipu (Brazil-Paraguay), Aswan High Dam (Egypt), Bhakra Nangal (India).
**Nuclear power:** High energy density; uranium as fuel; France, USA, Japan major users.
All key facts
›Coal types in order: Anthracite > Steam coal > Coking coal > Gas coal > Lignite > Peat (p.264)
›Anthracite = <5% of world coal output; smokeless; best quality (p.264)
›Coking coal produces coke used in blast furnaces for iron smelting (p.265)
›Half of world's lignite (brown coal) reserves in West and East Germany (p.265)
›World's largest coal producers: USA 24%, USSR 20%, China 20%, Poland 7.5%, UK 5% (p.265)
›India's coal: Damodar Basin, Raniganj (p.265)
›China's coal: Shanxi and Shaanxi provinces — 'second Pennsylvania' (p.265)
›Japan has limited coal; imports coking coal (p.265)
›South hemisphere coal: Australia (Newcastle, NSW), Zimbabwe, South Africa (Transvaal, Natal) (p.266)
›Petroleum occurs in anticline/dome-shaped rock structures (oil traps) (p.267)
›Only Burma, Thailand, Philippines had rice surplus for export (at time of writing) (p.295)
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apmc agricultural marketinggm crops and agriculture policygreen revolution and food securitymsp and agricultural pricingpm kisan and income supportrural development credit diversification
Masai Pastoral Lifestyle
›The Masai are cattle pastoralists. (p. 168)
›They are a nomadic tribe who historically roamed the central highlands of East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda). (p. 169)
›Their population, once about 50,000 in the mid-19th century, has been greatly reduced. (p. 169)
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The Masai are a nomadic tribe primarily known as cattle pastoralists, historically inhabiting the central highlands of East Africa, specifically Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Their traditional lifestyle is deeply intertwined with their herds of zebu cattle, which possess humps and long horns. Despite once numbering around 50,000 in the mid-19th century, their population has significantly decreased due to tribal conflicts, epidemics, and natural deaths. They are now largely restricted to designated Masai reserves in Kenya and Tanzania, having lost their ancestral grazing lands in the Kenyan Highlands to plantation agriculture by white settlers and later to African farmers.
The Masai's economic and social structure revolves around their cattle, which are regarded with immense respect and affection. These animals are never deliberately slaughtered for food or sale; beef is consumed only when an animal dies naturally. Furthermore, zebu cattle are not used as draught animals but are exclusively kept for their milk and blood. Women perform milking twice daily, yielding a small amount of milk (typically under one litre), which is consumed fresh or sour, as cheese-making is not practiced. Blood, obtained by puncturing a swollen vein with a special arrow-head, is also a part of their diet. Cattle serve as a primary symbol of wealth, dictate social status (the largest herds signify the richest man), and are used in bride payments. When a family patriarch dies, the livestock is divided among his sons.
Adapting to the savanna environment, the Masai build temporary circular huts from sticks, bushes, and mud. They protect their cattle at night by enclosing them within strong fences to ward off wild animals. During periods of drought, they migrate their herds from the less nutritious grass of the lower slopes to the higher, cooler plateau regions where pastures are better. While the Masai obtain some agricultural products like millet, bananas, groundnuts, and vegetables from neighboring agricultural tribes such as the Kikuyu, they generally prioritize the quantity of their cattle over their quality and are reluctant to sell them, which impacts the profitable utilization of their vast land.
All key facts
›The Masai are cattle pastoralists. (p. 168)
›They are a nomadic tribe who historically roamed the central highlands of East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda). (p. 169)
›Their population, once about 50,000 in the mid-19th century, has been greatly reduced. (p. 169)
›They are now mainly confined to 39,000 sq. km (15,000 square miles) of Masai reserves in Kenya and Tanzania. (p. 169)
›Their old grazing grounds in the Kenyan Highlands were taken over by immigrant white settlers and later by African farmers. (p. 169)
›They currently occupy less favored savanna areas, grazing approximately a million cattle and twice as many sheep and goats. (p. 169)
›During droughts, the Masai move to higher and cooler plateau regions for better pastures. (p. 169)
›They construct temporary circular huts using sticks, bushes, and mud. (p. 169)
›Cattle are kept in special, fenced enclosures at night for protection from wild animals. (p. 169)
›The Masai keep zebu cattle, identifiable by their humps and long horns. (p. 169)
›Cattle are treated with great respect and affection and are never slaughtered for food or for sale. (p. 169)
›Beef is consumed only when cattle die a natural death from old age or disease. (p. 169)
Indigenous Tribes of Eurasian Tundra
›The Eurasian tundra is inhabited by nomadic tribes such as the Lapps, Samoyeds, Yakuts, Koryaks, and Chuckchi. (GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md)
›**Lapps** are found in northern Finland and Scandinavia. (GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md)
›**Samoyeds** inhabit Siberia, specifically from the Ural Mountains and the Yenisey basin. (GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md)
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The Eurasian tundra is home to several indigenous nomadic tribes, including the Lapps, Samoyeds, Yakuts, Koryaks, and Chuckchi. These communities traditionally lead a semi-nomadic existence, relying on their herds of reindeer for sustenance and wandering across the available pastures. The Lapps are primarily found in northern Finland and Scandinavia, while the Samoyeds inhabit Siberia, specifically from the Ural Mountains and the Yenisey basin. The Yakuts reside in the Lena basin, and the Koryaks and Chuckchi are located in north-eastern Asia.
Over recent decades, the way of life for many of these tribes has evolved, with an increasing number adopting a more settled existence. In regions such as the U.S.S.R., large-scale farms have been established for the commercial raising of reindeer and the breeding of fur-bearing animals, introducing significant changes to traditional economic activities. Additionally, governments actively support the advancement of these Arctic inhabitants, and new settlements have emerged in the region, partly due to the discovery of various minerals.
All key facts
›The Eurasian tundra is inhabited by nomadic tribes such as the Lapps, Samoyeds, Yakuts, Koryaks, and Chuckchi. (GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md)
›**Lapps** are found in northern Finland and Scandinavia. (GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md)
›**Samoyeds** inhabit Siberia, specifically from the Ural Mountains and the Yenisey basin. (GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md)
›**Yakuts** are located in the Lena basin. (GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md)
›**Koryaks and Chuckchi** are indigenous to north-eastern Asia. (GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md)
›Traditionally, these tribes wander with their herds of reindeer across the Eurasian tundra pastures. (GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md)
›Many of these nomadic tribes have transitioned towards a more settled way of life. (GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md)
›In the U.S.S.R., large farms have been established for raising reindeer and breeding fur-bearing animals. (GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md)
›New settlements have emerged in the Arctic region due to the discovery of minerals, with governments also assisting the advancement of inhabitants like the Lapps and Samoyeds. (GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md)
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Many remote parts of the Amazon basin, Zaire, and Borneo lack modern communication lines, with rivers forming the only natural highways (p. 154).
›Tropical soils, though fairly fertile in their virgin state due to humus, deteriorate rapidly once the humus is used and natural vegetative cover is removed, due to torrential downpours washing out nutrients (p. 154).
›Soil deterioration leads to subsequent soil erosion and impoverishment (p. 154).
›Commercial extraction of timber is difficult because trees do not occur in homogeneous stands, there are no frozen surfaces to facilitate logging, and tropical hardwoods are sometimes too heavy to float (p. 154).
›Livestock farming is greatly handicapped by an absence of meadow grass, even on the highlands (p. 154).
›Equatorial grass is often too tall and coarse to be nutritious (p. 154).
›In Africa, domesticated animals are attacked by tsetse flies, which cause ngana, a deadly disease (p. 154).
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Bedouin animals (sheep, goats, camels, horses) provide milk, cheese, meat, hides, leather, hair, and wool for various products.
›Bedouin trade animal products for dates, grain, beverages, medicines, firearms, and manufactured articles at trading stations or oases.
›**Caravan Traders:**
›These were travelling merchants who transported a wide range of goods across deserts, sometimes for months or years.
›The camel is described as the 'ship of the desert' due to its broad padded feet, ability to carry loads (160 kg) and travel distances (80 km/day), and capacity to store water and fat.
›The role of caravan traders has been greatly reduced by modern air, road, and rail transport, but they remain vital for interior oases beyond road reach.
›**Settled Cultivators:**
›Cultivation in deserts is indispensable and requires irrigation from oases, rivers, or dams via canal networks.
›The Nile in Egypt supports 40 million people through basin irrigation and modern dams (e.g., Aswan, Sennar), enabling multiple crops per year.
›Other river systems utilized for irrigation include the Indus in Pakistan, the Tigris-Euphrates in Iraq, and the Colorado in the Imperial Valley of California.
›Oases are depressions where underground water reaches the surface, varying significantly in size (e.g., Tafilalet Oasis in Morocco, 13,000 sq. km; Ghadames Oasis in Libya, 2.6 sq. km).
›Life in an oasis is secure and organized, often featuring mud-brick houses, narrow streets, a central market (suq), mosque, and school.
›The date palm is the most important tree cultivated in oases, grown in dug-out hollows to access deep water; Iraq is the world's largest producer.
›Other oasis crops include maize, barley, wheat, cotton, sugar-cane, fruits, and vegetables.
›**Mining Settlers:**
›The discovery of mineral wealth has attracted many immigrants to deserts.
›Gold brought immigrants to the Great Australian Desert, leading to towns like Kalgoorlie and Boulder.
›Diamonds and copper were discovered in the Kalahari Desert.
›In the Atacama Desert (northern Chile), caliche (for sodium nitrate fertilizer) and copper are mined, contributing to towns like Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, and Chuquicamata (world's largest copper town).
›North American deserts have silver (Mexico), uranium (Utah), and copper (Nevada) mines.
›Oil discovery in the Saharan and Arabian Deserts (e.g., Algeria, Middle East, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia) has led to significant transformation and development.
›Growth of Population is the change in population in a particular area between two points of time, expressed in absolute numbers.
›Growth Rate of Population is the change in population expressed in percentage.
›Positive Growth of Population occurs when the birth rate is more than the death rate or when people migrate permanently to a region.
›Negative Growth of Population occurs when the population decreases due to the birth rate falling below the death rate or people migrating out of the country.
›Crude Birth Rate (CBR) is calculated as (Bi / P) * 1000, where Bi = live births during the year and P = Mid-year population of the area.
›Crude Death Rate (CDR) is calculated as (D / P) * 1000, where D = Number of deaths and P = Estimated mid-year population of that year.
›Mortality rates are affected by a region’s demographic structure, social advancement, and levels of economic development.
›The Place of Origin shows a decrease in population, while the Place of Destination shows an increase due to migration.
›Migrants who move into a new place are called Immigrants, and those who move out of a place are called Emigrants.
›Push factors for migration include unemployment, poor living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters, epidemics, and socio-economic backwardness.
›Pull factors for migration include better job opportunities and living conditions, peace and stability, security of life and property, and pleasant climate.
›In the twentieth century, the world population increased four times.
›Developed countries take more time to double their population compared to developing countries, where most population growth is occurring.
›Even if the annual population growth rate declines, the total population continues to grow each year when applied to a very large base population.
›The HIV/AIDS epidemics in Africa, parts of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), and Asia have increased death rates, reduced average life expectancy, and slowed population growth.
›Two hundred years ago, all countries of the world were in Stage I of the Demographic Transition, characterized by high fertility and high mortality, slow population growth, and a largely agrarian, illiterate society with low technology.
›In Stage II of the Demographic Transition, fertility remains high initially but declines over time, while the mortality rate reduces due to improvements in sanitation and health conditions, leading to a high net addition to the population.
›In Stage III of the Demographic Transition, both fertility and mortality decline considerably, resulting in a stable or slowly growing population that is urbanized, literate, has high technical know-how, and deliberately controls family size.
›Population control measures include family planning (spacing or preventing births), propaganda, free availability of contraceptives, and tax disincentives for large families.
›Thomas Malthus's theory (1793) stated that the number of people would increase faster than the food supply, leading to a population crash caused by famine, disease, and war, and argued that preventive checks are better than physical checks.
›Non-food crops cultivated include cotton and tobacco. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›They keep herds of cattle and goats for milk and meat, but these are subsidiary to crop cultivation. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›Manure from their animals is used to fertilize fields. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›Poultry are raised by villagers for eggs and chicken. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›The farming year is closely related to the rainfall season, which is May to September in Nigeria. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›Seeds are sown in late April after sufficient rain has fallen. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›Weeding with traditional hoes is done at regular intervals. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›Crops are ripened and harvested in September, the beginning of the cool, dry season. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›Farmers burn down tall brown bushes to prepare new fields. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
›Fires may sometimes be caused by the dry, dusty Harmattan wind. — GC Leong — Certificate Physical and Human Geography (3rd Ed), ch17-the-savanna-or-sudan.md (p. 170)
Crop failures can be disastrous without counter-measures like adequate irrigation, improved crop varieties, and scientific farming techniques (p. 170).
›The Sudan Climate's distinct wet-and-dry periods contribute to rapid deterioration of soil fertility (p. 170).
›Torrential downpours in the rainy season cause leaching, washing away plant nutrients like nitrates, phosphates, and potash (p. 170).
›During the dry season, intense heating and evaporation cause most soil water to dry up (p. 170).
›Many savanna areas feature poor lateritic soils that are often incapable of supporting good crops (p. 170).
›Proper soil conservation, including regular manuring, weeding, and careful maintenance, is essential to prevent declining crop yields (p. 170).
›Native zebu cattle are bony, yield little meat or milk, and are susceptible to tropical diseases like ngana (sleeping sickness) carried by the tsetse fly (p. 170).
›The export of beef or milk from tropical grasslands has not yet achieved significant importance (p. 170).
›For successful cattle rearing, it is considered necessary to introduce temperate cattle (e.g., English Shorthorn, Friesian, Guernsey) to cross with tropical zebu (p. 170).
›Improving grass quality, establishing a better communication network, and implementing scientific cattle breeding and disease control are essential for cattle ranching (p. 171).
›The attitude of native herdsmen, such as the Masai who treat cattle as prestige animals and not for slaughter, poses difficulties for the commercialization of the cattle industry (p. 171).
›Despite these difficulties, the savanna as an agricultural region holds great promise for the future (p. 171).
›Fur-bearing animals are being reared on a commercial scale, and fishing is also commercialized. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 236)
›Schools have been established in accessible parts of Canada and Alaska to teach Eskimo children modern life skills. (ch25-the-arctic-or-polar-climate.md, p. 236)
Agriculture is less important in regions with the Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate due to the severity and long duration of winter (ch24-the-cool-temperate-eastern.md).
›Hardy crops like potatoes, oats, and barley can be successfully grown and harvested in Laurentian regions, thriving particularly on podzolized soils (ch24-the-cool-temperate-eastern.md).
›The Asiatic Laurentian region (including northern China, Manchuria, and Korea) is a leading producer of soya beans, and also cultivates groundnuts, sesame, rapeseeds, tung oil, and mulberry (ch24-the-cool-temperate-eastern.md).
›In the North American Laurentian region, extensive arable farming is limited, with agricultural activities largely focused on dairy farming, hay cultivation, and fruit growing, such as apples in Nova Scotia's Annapolis Valley (ch24-the-cool-temperate-eastern.md).
›Fishing is the most significant economic activity in Laurentian climatic regions, often surpassing agriculture as the main livelihood, particularly in indented coastlands like northern Japan (ch24-the-cool-temperate-eastern.md).
›Cattle are not used as draught animals; they are kept exclusively for milk and blood. (p. 169)
›Milking is done by women before day-break and at dusk. (p. 169)
›Milk yield is typically low, not exceeding one litre per milking, and is drunk fresh or sour. (p. 169)
›Cheese-making is not known to the Masai. (p. 169)
›Blood from both bulls and cows is consumed, obtained by puncturing a swollen vein with a special arrow-head. (p. 169)
›Cattle are considered more valuable than anything else and are symbols of wealth; the richest man possesses the largest herds. (p. 169)
›Cattle are used as payment for wives. (p. 169)
›Upon the death of a family father, livestock is divided among the sons. (p. 169)
›The Masai obtain small amounts of millet, bananas, groundnuts, and vegetables from agricultural tribes like the Kikuyu of Kenya. (p. 169)
›They prioritize the number of cattle over their quality and are unwilling to sell them. (p. 169)
›Their cultural practice of treating cattle as prestige animals, not for slaughter, presents difficulties for the commercialization of the cattle industry. (p. 170)