Temple Architecture

Nagara style of temple architecture developed in northern India from the 5th century CE onwards, reaching its peak during the Gupta period and later under regional dynasties like the Chandelas (Khajuraho), Solankis (Gujarat), and the Odisha kingdoms (Konark, Puri). It is one of the three canonical styles of Indian temple architecture — the others being Dravida (south) and Vesara (hybrid). **Basic structure of a Hindu temple**: - *Garbhagriha* (sanctum sanctorum / womb-house): Small cubic room housing the principal deity, which was a small cubicle with a single entrance and grew into a larger chamber in time, made to house the main icon which is the focus of much ritual attention. - *Mandapa*: Entrance hall/portico, housing worshippers, which may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers. - *Shikhara*: Mountain-like spire (curvilinear in Nagara), taking the shape of a curving shikhar in North India. - *Vahana*: Mount of the main deity, placed before the garbhagriha, often accompanied by a standard pillar or *dhvaj* placed axially before the sanctum. - *Pradakshina path*: Covered ambulatory passage around the garbhagriha. Shrines could be of *sandhara* type (with pradakshinapatha) or *nirandhara* type (without pradakshinapatha). - *Sarvatobhadra* shrines: A type of shrine that can be accessed from all sides. **Five-stage evolution of temple architecture** (Gupta period): 1. *First Stage*: Flat roof, square plan, shallow pillars, low platform. (Example: Temple No. 17 at Sanchi) 2. *Second Stage*: Higher platform, two-storied examples, covered pradakshina path. (Example: Parvati Temple, Nachna Kuthara, MP) 3. *Third Stage*: Emergence of low curvilinear shikharas; introduction of Panchayatan style — principal shrine + 4 subsidiary shrines in cruciform plan. (Examples: Dashavatar Temple, Deogarh; Durga Temple, Aihole) 4. *Fourth Stage*: Main shrine became more rectangular. (Example: Ter temple, Sholapur) 5. *Fifth Stage*: Circular temples with shallow rectangular projections. (Example: Maniyar Math, Rajgir) **Nagara School features**: - Built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it. - Panchayatan style (cruciform ground plan with 4 subsidiary shrines) - Assembly halls (mandaps) in front of principal shrine - Ganga and Yamuna goddesses placed outside the garbhagriha, usually found at the entrance of a garbhagriha. - No water tanks inside temple premises (unlike Dravida style which often has large water reservoirs). - Built on upraised platforms - Three types of shikharas: - *Latina (rekha-prasad)*: Square base, walls curve or slope inward to a point. These are sharply rising tall towers. - *Phamsana*: Broader base, shorter, with roofs composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre, sloping upwards on a straight incline. This design is often used for the mandapas. - *Valabhi*: Rectangular base, with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber, its edge rounded like a wagon-vaulted roof, influenced by ancient building forms like Buddhist rock-cut chaitya caves. - Shikhara topped by *amalak* (horizontal fluted disc) and *kalash* (spherical element/vase) - Wall divided into vertical planes called *rathas* (triratha, pancharatha, saptaratha, navaratha) - No elaborate boundary walls or gateways (unlike Dravida style). - Ornamentation includes elements like *gavaksha*, *vyala/yali*, *kalpa-lata*. **Three Nagara sub-schools**: 1. *Odisha School*: - Lavishly carved exterior; plain interior - No pillars in porch — iron girders used instead - Shikhara called *rekhadeul* (near-vertical, then curves sharply inward) or *deul* (vertical almost until the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards). - Mandap called *jagmohan* - Square ground plan for the main temple, becoming circular in the crowning *mastaka*, making the spire nearly cylindrical in appearance. - Has boundary walls (like Dravida) - Examples: Sun Temple at Konark (Black Pagoda), Jagannath Temple at Puri, Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneswar. The shikhara of the Konark Sun Temple (built around 1240) was a colossal creation said to have reached 70m but fell in the nineteenth century; its *jagamohana* (dance-pavilion) has survived. 2. *Khajuraho (Chandela) School*: - Both interior and exterior walls decorated lavishly. - Sculptures often erotic (*mithun* or embracing couples), inspired by Vatsyayana's Kamasutra, considered auspicious and placed at the entrance, on an exterior wall, or between the mandapa and the main shrine. - Built of sandstone - Three chambers: garbhagriha + mandapa + ardha-mandapa; some have antarala (vestibular entrance). Lakshmana temple (dedicated to Vishnu) was built in 954 CE by Chandela king Dhanga. - Generally north or east facing - Panchayatan style; even subsidiary shrines had rekha-prasad shikharas — impression of a mountain range. The shikharas rise high in a curved pyramidal fashion, emphasizing the vertical thrust, ending in an *amalak* topped with a *kalash*. - Built on high platforms; included Hindu and Jain temples. The Kandariya Mahadeva temple is considered the epitome of temple architecture in Central India. Also, a Chausanth Yogini temple, predating the tenth century, consisting of small, square shrines of roughly-hewn granite blocks dedicated to *devis* associated with Tantric worship. - Sculptures are highly stylised with typical features: almost full relief, cut away from surrounding stone, sharp noses, prominent chins, long slanting eyes and eyebrows. 3. *Solanki School* (Maru-Gurjara style): - Gujarat and Rajasthan, under Solanki rulers - Temple walls of the central small shrine devoid of carvings and left plain. - Garbhagriha connected to mandapa both internally and externally - Decorative arched gateways (*torans*) at porticos. A huge ornamental arch-*torana* leads to the *sabha mandapa*. - Unique feature: step-tank (*surya-kund*) near temple, with small temples on the steps. The Modhera Sun Temple has a massive rectangular stepped tank called *surya kund* in front, containing 108 miniature shrines carved between the steps. - Wooden carvings present (influence of Gujarat woodcarving tradition). - Various materials: sandstone, black basalt, soft white marble. - East-facing; designed so sun rays fall directly into central shrine during equinoxes. - Example: Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat (built 1026–27, by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki Dynasty). The *sabha mandapa* is open on all sides. **Hills (Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal, Kashmir) Temple Architecture**: - Show a mixture of Gandhara, Gupta, and post-Gupta traditions. - Often feature a main *garbhagriha* and *shikhara* in *rekha-prasada* or *latina* style, but the *mandapa* is of an older form of wooden architecture, sometimes resulting in a pagoda shape. - Pandrethan temple (8th-9th centuries CE) in Kashmir is built on a plinth in the middle of a tank. Its roof is peaked and slants outward due to snowy conditions. It is moderately ornamented. - Jageshwar near Almora and Champavat near Pithoragarh are classic examples of Nagara architecture in the Kumaon region.

The Brihadeeswarar Temple, also known as Rajarajeswara Temple, is a magnificent Shiva temple located in Thanjavur. Completed around 1009 CE by Rajaraja Chola, it stands out as the largest and tallest among all Indian temples, showcasing a remarkable scale that surpassed earlier constructions by dynasties like the Pallavas, Chalukyas, or Pandyas. This Chola temple features a distinctive pyramidal multi-storeyed vimana, towering approximately 70 meters (230 ft). The vimana is crowned by a monolithic shikhara, which is an octagonal dome-shaped stupika. A notable architectural innovation seen here for the first time is the presence of two large gopuras (gateway towers) that were designed with an elaborate sculptural program integral to the temple's initial conception. The temple's shikhara corners are adorned with huge Nandi figures, and the kalasha at the very top measures about three meters and eight centimetres in height. Hundreds of stucco figures decorate the vimana, although some might have been later additions during the Maratha Period. The principal deity, Shiva, is enshrined as a huge lingam within a two-storeyed sanctum. The walls encircling the sanctum are richly decorated with painted murals and sculptures, depicting extensive mythological narratives.

Chausanth Yogini Temples are a distinctive type of ancient Indian temple, primarily associated with the rise of Tantric worship. These temples are characterized by their unique architectural layout, typically comprising small, square shrines constructed from roughly-hewn granite blocks. Each of these individual shrines is dedicated to 'devis' or goddesses. The construction of such temples began after the seventh century, with most examples dating between the seventh and tenth centuries. While many such temples were dedicated to the cult of the yoginis and were spread across regions like Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and even as far south as Tamil Nadu, only a few have survived to the present day. An example of a Chausanth Yogini temple can be found among the temple complexes at Khajuraho, predating the tenth century.

Eastern Indian temple architecture exhibits distinct regional styles within the broader Nagara order, encompassing the North-East, Bengal, and Odisha. Studying ancient architecture in the North-East and Bengal is challenging due to renovations and the historical use of perishable materials like terracotta for construction and moulding plaques until the seventh century. In Assam, a post-Gupta style, influenced by the Gupta idiom, prevailed until the tenth century. By the twelfth to fourteenth centuries, a distinct regional style, known as the Ahom style, emerged around Guwahati, blending Tai influences from Upper Burma with the dominant Pala style of Bengal. Bengal saw the development of the Pala style (9th-11th centuries) and the Sena style (mid-11th to mid-13th centuries). Early Pala temples, like the Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple in Barakar, featured tall curving shikharas crowned by large amalakas, similar to contemporary Odisha temples. Vernacular building traditions, such as the curving bamboo roof of Bengali huts (the "Bangla roof"), significantly influenced temple design and were later adopted in Mughal architecture. During the Mughal period and beyond, terracotta brick temples in Bengal combined local techniques with older Pala forms and Islamic architectural elements like arches and domes. Odisha temples constitute a unique sub-style within the Nagara order, characterized by three main architectural features: rekhapida, pidhadeul, and khakra. The shikhara, known as 'deul,' is typically vertical before a sharp inward curve at the top, preceded by mandapas called 'jagamohana.' Odisha temples often feature a square ground plan that becomes circular in the crowning mastaka, giving the spire a nearly cylindrical appearance. Exteriors are lavishly carved, while interiors tend to be bare. A prominent example is the Sun temple at Konark, a colossal stone structure built around 1240 CE.

Dravidian (or Chola) style of temple architecture is the dominant style of South India, originating with the Pallava dynasty and reaching its peak under the Chola rulers. It is one of the three canonical styles of Indian temple architecture alongside Nagara (north) and Vesara (hybrid). **Pallava Phase — Four Stages**: Temple architecture in South India began under Pallava ruler Mahendravarman. It evolved through four stages: 1. *Mahendra Group*: First stage. Temples were rock-cut mandapas (unlike Nagara where mandapa = assembly hall only). Under Mahendravarman. 2. *Narasimha Group*: Second stage. Rock-cut mandapas decorated with intricate sculptures; mandapas divided into separate rathas. Largest = Dharmaraja Ratha; smallest = Draupadi Ratha. Mahabalipuram/Mamallapuram is the key site (7th century CE). Declared UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984 as "Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram." 3. *Rajsimha Group*: Third stage. Shift from rock-cut to structural (built) temples. Examples: Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, Kailashnath Temple at Kanchipuram. 4. *Nandivarman Group*: Fourth stage. Smaller temples, features closer to fully evolved Dravidian style. **Mahabalipuram monuments** (Pallava period, 7th century CE): - *Pancha Rathas* (Pandava Rathas): Five rock-cut temples — Dharmaraja (largest), Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula-Sahadeva, Draupadi Rathas. Earliest rock-cut temples in South India. - *Rock-cut caves*: Varaha Cave Temple, Krishna Cave Temple, Mahishasuramardini Mandapa (Durga killing Mahishasura). - *Descent of the Ganges*: Open-air rock relief carved on two huge boulders; also called Arjuna's Penance or Bhagiratha's Penance. - *Shore Temple complex*: Two small + one large temple, enclosed in compound wall studded with Nandi images. Dedicated predominantly to Shiva; has a sculpture of Anantashayana Vishnu. **Dravidian Style Features** (Chola and later): - High boundary walls enclose the temple premises (unlike Nagara) - Front wall has a high entrance gateway called *gopuram* - Panchayatan style (principal + 4 subsidiary shrines) - Spire is a *vimana* — stepped pyramid rising linearly (NOT curvilinear like Nagara) - Crowning element is octagonal, called *shikhara* (note: confusing with Nagara shikhara terminology) - Only ONE vimana — on the main temple only; subsidiary shrines do NOT have vimanas - Assembly hall connected to garbhagriha via vestibular tunnel called *antarala* - Sculptures of Dwarapal (doorkeeper), mithun (couple), yakshas at garbhagriha entrance - *Water tank* inside temple enclosure — distinctive Dravidian feature absent in Nagara - Examples: Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur (built by Raja Raja I, 1011 CE), Gangaikondacholapuram Temple (by Rajendra I) **Chola Sculpture — Nataraja**: The bronze Nataraja (Shiva in Tandava dance) is the supreme achievement of Chola sculpture. The earliest Nataraja was found at Ravana Phadi cave, Aihole (early Chalukya), but it reached its peak under the Cholas. Symbolism of Nataraja: - Upper right hand: drum (damru) = sound of creation - Upper left hand: eternal fire = destruction - Lower right hand: abhay mudra = fearlessness/benediction - Lower left hand: points to upraised foot = path of salvation - Dwarf under foot: ignorance and ego - Matted flowing locks: flow of river Ganga - One male ear + one female ear: ardhanarishwar (fusion of male and female) - Snake on arm: kundalini power - Nimbus of lights: vast cycles of time

The Sun Temple at Modhera, located in Gujarat, is a significant art-historical site dating back to the early eleventh century. It was constructed by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki Dynasty in 1026 CE. A distinctive feature of the temple is the massive rectangular stepped tank situated in front of it, known as the surya kund, which is considered one of the grandest temple tanks in India, covering a hundred square meters. This tank incorporates 108 miniature shrines carved between its steps. The temple complex includes a huge ornamental arch-torana that leads into the sabha mandapa, or assembly hall. Reflecting the architectural fashion of western and central Indian temples of the era, the sabha mandapa is open on all sides. The lavish carving and sculpture work throughout the temple complex clearly demonstrate the influence of Gujarat's rich woodcarving tradition. Uniquely, the walls of the central small shrine are left plain and devoid of carving. This design choice is purposeful, as the temple faces east, allowing the sun's rays to shine directly into the central shrine during the equinoxes each year.

The spread of Indian culture, religion, and architecture beyond the subcontinent was primarily driven by maritime trade and the sea-faring activities of kingdoms like the Cholas and the Kalinga Empire. This cultural diffusion resulted in the establishment of Hindu and Buddhist dynasties in Southeast Asia, leaving a rich architectural legacy that is directly linked to Indian temple traditions. **Angkor Vat (Cambodia)**: - Located in the jungles of Cambodia; the world's largest Hindu temple - Built by the Khmer rulers in the period 800–1300 CE; Suryavarman II credited with building most of the monuments - Architecture closely related to Chola architecture, with distinct local elements - Part of the broader Hindu influence in the Khmer Empire (Indochina) - Related civilisations: Champa in Vietnam, Khmer in Indochina, Majapahit in Java **Prambanan Temple (Java, Indonesia)**: - Largest Hindu temple in Indonesia; UNESCO World Heritage Site - Dedicated to the Trimurti — Brahma (Creator), Vishnu (Preserver), Shiva (Destroyer) - Has approximately 240 small temples and shrines in the compound - Built in 9th century CE by the Sanjaya Kings of the Mataram (Medang) Kingdom — primarily Shiva worshippers **Pashupatinath Temple (Kathmandu, Nepal)**: - Built in Nepalese Pagoda style on banks of River Bagmati - Dedicated to Lord Pashupatinath (Shiva) - Cubical shape; two-tiered structure; two garbhagrihas (inner and outer) - Inner sanctum has Shiva linga with four faces - Compound also houses Vasukinath temple and sacred Arya Ghat - Builder not clearly known **Preah Vihear Temple (Cambodia)**: - Dedicated to mountain gods Sikharesvara and Bhadresvara (manifestations of Shiva) - Symbolically represents mythological Mount Meru (abode of gods) - Construction began 9th century CE; mainly built by Khmer kings Suryavarman I and Suryavarman II (11th–12th centuries) - UNESCO World Heritage Site; location on Cambodia-Thailand border was disputed; ICJ ruled in favour of Cambodia in 1962 **Katas Raj Temple (Pakistan)**: - Dedicated to Shiva; built in Kashmiri architectural style (Varma and Karkota dynasties) - Built of soft sandstone; has trefoil arches, dentiles, pointed roofs - Believed Pandavas visited during exile; mentioned by Hsuan Tsang (7th century) - Complex has Satgraha (seven temples), sacred lake, ruins of Buddhist stupa **Aditya Sun Temple of Multan (Pakistan)**: - One of the oldest and most revered temples of South Asia - Mentioned by historian Herodotus (5th century BCE), Hsuan Tsang, and 10th-century geographer Al-Istakhri - Famous for riches; idol of Sun god in gold with red ruby eyes - Raided repeatedly by Mahmud of Ghazni **Munneswaram Temple (Sri Lanka)**: - Believed to be about 1,000 years old; dedicated primarily to Shiva - Also has shrines of Ganesha, Kali, and Ayyanayake (Sinhalese Buddhist deity) - Rebuilt in 15th–16th centuries; destroyed and then rebuilt after Portuguese Jesuit destruction in early 16th century

Vijayanagara, meaning ‘city of victory’, was founded in 1336. The kingdom was a significant cultural hub, attracting international travellers like Niccolo di Conti, Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz, Duarte Barbosa, and Abd al-Razzaq, whose vivid accounts provide insights into the city. Its vibrant literary tradition is documented through various Sanskrit and Telugu works. Architecturally, Vijayanagara represents a synthesis of the established dravida temple architecture and the Islamic styles from neighboring sultanates. This unique blend is a defining characteristic of its structures. In terms of sculpture, the Vijayanagara artists fundamentally drew inspiration from and consciously aimed to recreate Chola ideals. However, their sculptural work also occasionally reflects the presence of foreigners, indicating cultural exchange. The eclectic ruins of Vijayanagara, dating from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, offer a glimpse into a period marked by wealth, extensive exploration, and significant cultural fusion.

Temple architecture in the Himalayan regions, including Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal, and Kashmir, developed a unique form characterized by a blend of various influences and local building traditions. Kashmir, due to its proximity to Gandhara sites, absorbed strong Gandhara influences by the fifth century CE. These influences later mixed with Gupta and post-Gupta traditions from centers like Sarnath, Mathura, Gujarat, and Bengal. The frequent travel of Brahmin pundits and Buddhist monks facilitated the intermingling and spread of both Buddhist and Hindu traditions in these hill areas. A distinctive feature of this architecture is the incorporation of the hills' own tradition of wooden buildings with pitched roofs. Consequently, while the main `garbhagriha` and `shikhara` often follow the `rekha-prasada` or `latina` styles, the `mandapa` frequently adopts older wooden architectural forms. Sometimes, the entire temple can even take on a pagoda shape. The Karkota period (8th-9th centuries) is particularly significant for Kashmiri architecture, exemplified by the Pandrethan temple, which is built on a plinth in the middle of a tank. Due to the snowy conditions, the temple roofs are peaked and slant outwards, and ornamentation tends to be moderate. Sculptures in regions like Chamba show a mix of local traditions with post-Gupta styles, often using a yellow alloy of zinc and copper, indicative of Kashmir's metal sculpture tradition. In Kumaon, temples like those at Jageshwar and Champavat are classic examples of `nagara` architecture.

Beyond the three canonical schools (Nagara, Dravida, Vesara), several regional architectural schools developed in India under specific dynastic patrons, each with distinctive characteristics. The Vesara style is a hybrid of Nagara and Dravida; other schools such as Hoysala, Vijayanagara, Nayaka, Pala-Sena, Sikh, and Rajput represent further regional variations. **Vesara School** (also called Karnataka School): - Conceptualised under the later Chalukya rulers, mid-7th century CE - Hybrid style combining Nagara (curvilinear shikhara, square base) and Dravida (intricate carvings, vimana design) features - Features: emphasis on vimana and mandapa; open ambulatory passageway; intricately carved pillars, doorways, ceilings - Three prominent dynasties: - Chalukyas of Badami and Kalyani - Rashtrakutas (750–983 CE): e.g., Kailashnath Temple, Ellora (Cave 16) - Hoysala Dynasty (1050–1300 CE): e.g., temples at Halebid and Belur - Examples: Doddabasappa Temple at Dambal, Ladkhan Temple at Aihole, temples at Badami **Hoysala School**: - Region of Karnataka near Mysore, 1050–1300 CE; prominent seats at Belur, Halebid, Sringeri - Multiple shrines around a central pillared hall - *Stellate plan*: Star-shaped (not cruciform) ground plan — unique to Hoysala - Main building material: Soft soap stone (chlorite schist) - Massive decorative emphasis — even jewellery on deity figures intricately carved - All chambers have interconnected shikharas with horizontal lines/mouldings - Built on *jagati* platform (~1 metre high); walls and stairs follow a zigzag pattern - Examples: Hoysaleshwara Temple at Halebid, Vijayanarayana (Chennakesava) Temple at Belur **Vijayanagara School** (1335–1565 CE, capital at Hampi, Karnataka): - Combined Chola, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chalukya styles; also influenced by Indo-Islamic style of Bijapur - Walls highly decorated with carvings and geometric patterns - Gopurams now built on ALL sides (not just front) - Monolithic rock pillars; mythical Yali (horse creature) engraved on pillars - More than one mandap in each temple; central mandap = *kalyan mandap* - Concept of secular buildings inside temple premises - Examples: Vittala Temple (famous for musical pillars), Lotus Mahal, Virupaksha Temple in Hampi - Rock-cut idol of Narasimha on Shesha (snake) near Hampi **Nayaka School** (16th–18th centuries, also called Madurai School): - Architecturally similar to Dravidian style but much larger in scope - Some Islamic influence - *Prakrams*: Huge corridors around garbhagriha with roofed ambulatory passageways - Gopurams were the largest — the art of gopuram reached its climax in Nayaka style - Meenakshi Temple, Madurai: has the tallest gopuram in the world - Temple structure filled with intricate carvings **Pala-Sena School** (Bengal, 8th–12th century CE): - Under Pala dynasty (Buddhist, Mahayana tradition) and Sena dynasty (Hindu) - Buildings had curved/sloping roofs like bamboo huts → "Bangla roof" (later adopted by Mughal architects) - Burnt bricks and terracotta bricks as principal material - Tall curving shikhara crowned by large amalaka (similar to Odisha school) - Stone and metal used for sculptures; figures notable for lustrous finish - Pala monuments: Universities of Nalanda, Jagaddala, Odantapuri, Vikramshila; Somapura Mahavihara (Bangladesh) - Sena monuments: Dhakeshwari Temple (Bangladesh) **Sikh Style** (Punjab region, influenced by Mughal): - Multiple Chhatris (kiosks) on top of constructions - Shallow cornices - Fluted domes covered by brass and copper guilds - Arches decorated with numerous foliations - Example: Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) — initiated 1585, completed by Arjan Dev in 1604 **Rajput Style** (Mughal period influence): - Imposing palaces and forts - Unique: hanging balconies (jharokhas) in all shapes and sizes - Cornices built in arch shape so shadow resembles a bow - Example: Hawa Mahal, Jaipur

The Chalukyas, particularly the Western Chalukyas, were significant patrons of temple architecture in the Deccan region, specifically Karnataka, from the mid-sixth to the mid-eighth centuries CE. Their architectural style is renowned for its experimental hybrid nature, often referred to as Vesara, which blends elements from both North Indian (Nagara) and South Indian (Dravida) traditions. Early Chalukyan contributions include rock-cut caves, evolving into a prolific period of structural temple construction at sites like Badami, Aihole, and Pattadakal. Their buildings are characterized by a dynamic incorporation of diverse stylistic features, demonstrating a creative response to prevailing architectural trends.