Art & Culture

Mural Paintings

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Mural Paintings

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Sittanavasal Cave Paintings

›Associated dynasty: Pandya kings (p.63)
›Type of caves: Jaina caves (p.63)
›Location of paintings: Visible on the ceilings of shrines, in verandas, and on the brackets (p.63)

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The Jaina caves at Sittanavasal are significant surviving examples of mural paintings from the early Pandya period in Tamil Nadu. These paintings, found on the ceilings of shrines, in verandas, and on brackets, exemplify the artistic patronage of the Pandya kings. Notable depictions include dancing figures of celestial nymphs on the veranda pillars. Artists skillfully employed firm contours drawn in vermilion red on lighter backgrounds, with bodies rendered in yellow and subtle modelling. The figures are characterized by supple limbs, expressive faces, and rhythmic movements, showcasing the artists' imaginative skill in integrating forms within the architectural context. A distinctive feature is the slightly elongated eyes, which sometimes protrude off the face, a stylistic trait observed in many subsequent paintings across the Deccan and South India.

All key facts

›Associated dynasty: Pandya kings (p.63)
›Type of caves: Jaina caves (p.63)
›Location of paintings: Visible on the ceilings of shrines, in verandas, and on the brackets (p.63)
›Depictions on veranda pillars: Dancing figures of celestial nymphs (p.63)
›Contour drawing: Firmly drawn and painted in vermilion red on a lighter background (p.63)
›Body rendering: In yellow with subtle modelling (p.63)
›Artistic characteristics: Supple limbs, expression on the faces of dancers, and rhythm in their swaying movement (p.63)
›Eye features: Slightly elongated and at times protrude off the face (p.64)
›Regional influence: The eye feature is also observed in many subsequent paintings in the Deccan and South India (p.64)

Other Mural Painting Sites (Ellora, Bagh, Sittanavasal, Lepakshi, Badami)

›Mural paintings exist from 10th century BC to 10th century AD (p.160)
›Ellora: paintings in 5 caves, mostly Kailasa temple; two phases of painting (p.250–261)
›Ellora depicts all three religions (Buddhist, Jain, Hindu) (p.260)

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Beyond Ajanta, India has a rich tradition of mural painting across multiple cave and temple sites. These murals span different religious traditions (Buddhist, Jain, Hindu), different periods, and different geographic regions — collectively forming the broadest canvas of early Indian painterly achievement. **Ellora Cave Paintings (Maharashtra):** The murals at Ellora are concentrated in five caves, mostly limited to the Kailasa temple. They were executed in two phases: the first during the carving of the caves; the second several centuries later. The earlier paintings depict Vishnu with Lakshmi, borne by Garuda, and the later paintings (in Gujarati style) show a procession of Shaiva holy men. While historical accounts describe these paintings, the **NCERT source states that all Ellora caves were originally plastered and painted, but currently nothing visible is left of these paintings.** The Ellora site itself is a unique art-historical site, located in Aurangabad district, with thirty-four Buddhist, Brahmanical (Hindu), and Jain caves, showcasing monasteries associated with these three religions dating from the 5th to the 11th century CE. It is also unique for its stylistic eclecticism, reflecting a confluence of many styles. There are twelve Buddhist caves, some featuring large single, double, and triple-storeyed excavations, with the triple-storey being a unique achievement at Ellora. These Buddhist caves contain many images belonging to Vajrayana Buddhism, including Tara, Mahamayuri, Akshobhya, Avalokiteshwara, Maitrya, and Amitabha. Brahmanical caves (Nos. 13–28) extensively depict Shaivite themes like Ravana shaking Mount Kailash, Andhakasurvadha, and Kalyanasundara, and Vaishnavite themes of Vishnu's avatars. The sculptures at Ellora are monumental, heavy, and show sophisticated handling of volume, often created by various guilds from different regions like Vidarbha, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. Cave No. 16 is famously known as Kailash Leni, a rock-cut temple carved from a single rock. **Bagh Cave Paintings (Madhya Pradesh):** Considered an extension of the Ajanta school, the Bagh caves in Madhya Pradesh, located 97 km from Dhar district, rank close to Ajanta in design, execution and decoration. These rock-cut cave monuments were carved during the Satvahana period. Originally nine caves, only five have survived, all functioning as viharas (resting places for monks) with a quadrangular plan, where a small chamber at the back typically served as the Chaitya (prayer hall). The key difference from Ajanta is that figures at Bagh are more tightly modeled, have stronger outlines, and are more earthly and human in quality. Cave 4, known as Rang Mahal or the 'Palace of Colours', still has visible paintings on its walls and ceilings depicting Buddhist and Jataka tales, with remnants also found in Caves 2, 3, 5, and 7. The paintings were created on a ground prepared with reddish-brown gritty thick mud plaster and lime-priming. Though scanty and decayed, these paintings depict religious themes in the light of contemporary secular lifestyle. To prevent further loss, many of the most beautiful paintings from the portico of Cave 4 were carefully removed in 1982 and are now preserved in the Archaeological Museum of Gwalior. **Armamalai Cave Paintings (Tamil Nadu):** Located in Vellore district, these natural caves were converted into a Jain temple in the 8th century. Unbaked mud structures within the cave served as rest areas for Jain saints. The paintings on walls and roof depict the tales of Astathik Palakas (deities protecting eight corners) and Jain themes. **Sittanavasal Cave (Arivar Koil) Paintings (Tamil Nadu):** Located 16 km northwest of Pudukkottai, these famous rock-cut caves are known for Jain temple paintings. The murals closely resemble Bagh and Ajanta paintings. Paintings appear on walls, ceiling and pillars. The central theme is the Jain Samavasarana (Preaching hall) — where a Tirthankara delivers sermons after achieving Kevala-gnana (enlightenment). A key motif is a pond with lotuses being collected by monks. The paintings belong to either the Pallava period (king Mahendravarman I) or were renovated under the Pandya ruler in the 7th century. Medium: vegetable and mineral dyes on thin wet lime plaster. Colours: yellow, green, orange, blue, black, white. **Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter (Odisha):** Located in Keonjhar district. These ancient fresco paintings are on a rock shelter shaped like a half-opened umbrella — believed to have served as a royal hunting lodge. The most notable painting is a royal procession dating to the 7th century. Also contains remains of Chola period paintings (11th century). **Lepakshi Paintings (Andhra Pradesh):** Located in Anantapur district, these mural paintings were executed on the Veerabhadra temple walls at Lepakshi in the 16th century, during the Vijayanagara period. Themes: Ramayana, Mahabharata and incarnations of Vishnu. Notable for the complete absence of primary colours, especially blue. They depict a decline in painting quality. Forms and figures are outlined in black. **Badami Cave Temple Murals (Karnataka):** Though the Badami caves in Karnataka are primarily famous for sculptures, they also contain early mural paintings from the 6th–7th century AD, resembling the tradition of Ajanta and Bagh, executed under the patronage of the Chalukyas. They represent some of the earliest surviving Hindu paintings. Human subjects have graceful, compassionate looks with big half-closed eyes and protruding lips. Subjects include Chalukyan kings, Jain saints, Shiva-Parvati, and Puranic events. Cave 3 has a famous four-armed Brahma on his swan. **Jogimara Cave Paintings (Chhattisgarh):** An artificially carved cave in Surguja district, dated ~1000–300 BC. Contains few paintings and inscriptions of a love story in Brahmi script. Considered an attachment to an amphitheatre. Paintings show dancing couples, elephants and fish, with a distinct red outline.

All key facts

›Mural paintings exist from 10th century BC to 10th century AD (p.160)
›Ellora: paintings in 5 caves, mostly Kailasa temple; two phases of painting (p.250–261)
›Ellora depicts all three religions (Buddhist, Jain, Hindu) (p.260)
›Bagh caves: Madhya Pradesh; extension of Ajanta school; Cave 4 = Rang Mahal (p.268–279)
›Armamalai: Vellore, Tamil Nadu; Jain temple, 8th century conversion (p.280–286)
›Sittanavasal: Pudukkottai district, Tamil Nadu; Samavasarana theme; Pallava or Pandya period (p.288–309)
›Ravan Chhaya: Keonjhar district, Odisha; half-umbrella shape; royal procession painting (p.311–317)
›Lepakshi: Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh; 16th century, Vijayanagara period; no primary colours especially blue (p.319–327)
›Badami: Karnataka; 6th–7th century AD; earliest surviving Hindu paintings (p.339–351)
›Jogimara: Surguja district, Chhattisgarh; ~1000–300 BC; Brahmi script inscriptions (p.329–337)
›Ellora: Located in Aurangabad District, 100 km from Ajanta, with 34 caves (Buddhist, Brahmanical, Jain). (p.40)
›Ellora: Monasteries date from the 5th century CE onwards to the 11th century CE, unique for stylistic eclecticism. (p.40)
›Ellora: Buddhist caves are single, double, and triple-storeyed, with the triple-storey being a unique architectural achievement. (p.41)
›Ellora: All caves were originally plastered and painted, but currently nothing visible is left. (p.41)
›Ellora: Cave No. 12 (a triple-storey excavation) contains images of various Buddhist deities including Tara, Avalokiteshwara, Manushi Buddhas, Vairochana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, Amoghsiddhi, Vajrasatva, and Vajraraja. (p.41)
›Ellora: Cave No. 14 is the only double-storey Brahmanical cave. (p.41)
›Ellora: Jain caves (9th century CE) exhibit ornate pillar designs with heavy protrusion. (p.41)
›Ellora: Brahmanical Cave Nos. 13–28 depict numerous Shaivite themes (e.g., Ravana shaking Mount Kailash, Andhakasurvadha, Kalyanasundara) and Vaishnavite themes (different avatars of Vishnu). (p.41)
›Ellora: Sculptures are monumental, heavy, and show considerable sophistication in handling volume, created by guilds from Vidarbha, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. (p.42)
›Ellora: Cave No. 16 is known as Kailash Leni, a rock-cut temple carved from a single rock. (p.42)
›Bagh Caves: Located 97 km from Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh. (p.42)
›Bagh Caves: Carved during the Satvahana period. (p.42)
›Bagh Caves: Originally nine caves, only five have survived, all are viharas (resting places for monks) with a quadrangular plan. (p.42)
›Bagh Caves: Cave No. 4 (Rang Mahal) has visible paintings, with remnants also in Cave Nos. 2, 3, 5, and 7. (p.42)
›Bagh Caves: Paintings were made on a ground prepared with reddish-brown gritty thick mud plaster, over which lime-priming was done. (p.42)
›Bagh Caves: Many of the most beautiful paintings from the portico of Cave 4 were removed in 1982 and are now in the Archaeological Museum of Gwalior. (p.42)
›Badami: Rock-cut caves were executed under the patronage of the Chalukyas. (p.43)