Miniature Paintings

Pahari paintings are a collective term for the miniature painting tradition that developed in the sub-Himalayan princely states, stretching from Jammu to Almora — approximately 22 princely states that were nominally under Mughal suzerainty but maintained their own artistic traditions. The word "Pahari" simply means "of the hills." The tradition encompasses two broad groups: 1. **Jammu or Dogra School** (Northern Series) 2. **Basholi and Kangra School** (Southern Series) A typical Pahari painting brings multiple figures onto the canvas, each full of movement. Each figure differs in composition, colour and pigmentation. Two of the greatest painters of this school were Nainsukh and Manaku. **Basholi School (17th century):** The earliest phase of Pahari painting. Characterised by expressive faces with a receding hairline and big lotus-petal-shaped eyes. Uses a lot of primary colours — red, yellow and green. Borrowed Mughal clothing-painting technique but developed its own style. The first patron was Raja Kirpal Singh, who commissioned illustrations of Bhanudatta's Rasamanjari, Gita Govinda and Ramayana. The most famous painter was Devi Das, known for his depictions of Radha-Krishna and portraits of kings. The contrast of colours is a hallmark, borrowed from Malwa paintings. **Kangra School (18th century onwards):** After the decline of the Mughal empire, many Mughal-trained artists migrated to the Kangra region under the patronage of Raja Govardhan Singh (1774). This led to the birth of the Guler-Kangra School — it first evolved in Guler, then came to Kangra. It reached its zenith under Raja Sansar Chand, whose paintings are marked by sensuality and intelligence. Popular subjects: Gita Govinda, Bhagwata Purana, Satsai of Biharilal, Nal-Damyanti, love scenes of Krishna. A famous group of paintings is the "Twelve Months" (Barah Masa) — depicting the effect of the twelve months on human emotions. This emotive style was popular until the 19th century. The Kangra school became the parent school for ateliers in Kullu, Chamba and Mandi. The Pahari paintings are different from Rajasthani paintings in their softer tones, lyrical quality and focus on romantic and devotional themes — particularly the Radha-Krishna love narrative.

The tradition of miniature paintings in South India developed independently and had distinct characteristics from northern schools. South Indian miniature paintings are distinguished by the heavy use of gold, a focus on divine subjects over royal patrons, and unique technical media. **Tanjore (Thanjavur) Paintings:** The Thanjavur or Tanjore school is famous for its distinctive decorative style and was patronised by the Maratha rulers of Thanjavur during the 18th century. The most unique feature of Tanjore paintings is that they are created on glass and board (rather than cloth and vellum as in North India). They are further distinguished by brilliant colour patterns and the liberal use of gold leaf. Gemstones and cut glasses are used as embellishments to create larger-than-life images. The predominant subject is Krishna — mostly depicted in a smiling pose in various events from his life. These paintings reached their zenith under the patronage of Sarfoji Maharaj. Today, the school continues but has diversified to include birds, animals and buildings as subjects. **Mysore Paintings:** Patronised by the rulers of the Mysore province and continuing into the British period, Mysore paintings primarily depict Hindu gods and goddesses. The distinctive compositional feature is that two or more figures appear in each painting, with one figure dominating all others in both size and colour. The unique technical signature of Mysore paintings is the use of gesso paste — a mixture of zinc oxide and Arabic gum — applied as a base before painting. This creates a sheen on the background. The painters counter this with muted colours that are softer and less bright, creating a distinctive interplay between the bright background and the muted foreground figures. Both South Indian schools differ fundamentally from northern miniature traditions in their materials (glass and board for Tanjore), their use of gold (liberal in both), and their focus on divinity over rulers.

Mughal miniature painting represents the most celebrated school of Indian miniature art, distinguished by its synthesis of Persian naturalism with Indian artistic sensibility. This style developed in the northern Indian subcontinent in the sixteenth century and continued till the mid–nineteenth century. The term "miniature" derives from the Latin word "Minium" (red lead paint used in illuminated manuscripts), and these paintings are technically defined as: no larger than 25 square inches, with subjects painted not more than 1/6th of actual size. The Mughal school drew from Persian antecedents but evolved dramatically across successive reigns, incorporating indigenous Indian and later European themes and styles. The peak of Mughal painting presented a highly sophisticated blend of Islamic, Hindu, and European visual culture and aesthetics. The key innovation it brought to Indian painting was the technique of foreshortening (depicting objects smaller and closer to create depth), three-dimensional figures, and the use of calligraphy in paintings. Mughal ateliers were formal workshops consisting of calligraphers, painters, gilders, and binders, where paintings were created to record significant events, personalities, and imperial interests, primarily for royal viewing as part of manuscripts and albums. While indigenous Indian painting styles emphasized flat perspective, strong use of lines, vivid color palettes, and bold modeling of figures, the Mughal style introduced subtlety, finesse, almost three-dimensional figures, and optical reality. Royal court scenes, portraits, and accurate depictions of flora and fauna were among the favorite themes of Mughal artists. **Babur:** Did not have time for significant art patronage; said to have patronised the Persian artist Bihzad for illustrations of the Mughal family tree. His autobiography, Baburnama, reflects his artistic passion and keen eye for portraiture. **Humayun:** Great patron of arts, but his atelier was disrupted when Sher Shah Suri exiled him to Persia. During his refuge in the court of Safavid Persian ruler Shah Tahmasp, he witnessed magnificent artistic traditions. He founded the Nigaar Khana (painting workshop) as part of his library and invited two pivotal Persian painters: Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali, noted for their portraiture skills, who returned with him to India and brought Persian influence to Mughal paintings. He also started the illustration project of Hamza Nama, which was continued by Akbar. Together Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali also created the illustrated manuscript Tutinama (Tale of a Parrot) during Akbar's reign. **Akbar:** Established a formal artistic studio called Tasvir Khana (or atelier), where artists were hired on salary. His court historian Abul Fazal recorded over a hundred artists, integrating skilled Persian and indigenous Indian artists, leading to a unique Indo-Persian style. Akbar, believed to be suffering from dyslexia, laid great emphasis on illustrated manuscripts. He viewed painting as a means of study and amusement and believed a painting could reveal the demeanour of its subject. He invited Indian artists who had worked for previous rulers, introducing the "Indian influence." Key features: 3D figures, foreshortening, calligraphy, transformation from popular to court art. Famous painters: Daswant, Basawan, Kesu, Govardhan, Miskin. Key manuscripts: Tutinama, Hamzanama, Anvar-i-Suhaili, Gulistan of Sadi, Razm Nama (Mahabharata translation), Ramayana, Akbar Nama. **Jahangir:** Mughal paintings reached their zenith under Jahangir. Unlike Akbar, Jahangir encouraged delicate observations and fine details, emphasizing naturalism and scientific accuracy in depictions of flora and fauna. He had his own atelier, distinct from his father's, prioritizing quality over quantity and often the work of a single master artist. He introduced decorative margins around paintings and popularized Muraqqas (individual album paintings). Famous painters: Ustad Mansoor, Aqa Riza, Abul Hasan, Manohar, Bichitra. Key manuscript: Ayar-i-Danish (Touchstone of Knowledge) and his memoirs Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. His atelier's most famous works included naturalistic paintings of a Zebra, turkey and cock, as well as complex symbolic works like *Jahangir’s Dream* and *Jahangir enthroned on an Hourglass*. **Shah Jahan:** Changed tenor of Mughal painting towards idealization, great stylization, and subliminal qualities, preferring jewel-like colors, perfect rendering, and intricate fine lines over naturalistic rendering (European influence). He moved from charcoal to pencil for sketching, increased use of gold and silver, and preferred brighter colour palettes. The atelier was enlarged but changed significantly in style. Padshahnama (The Chronicles of the King) was a major painting project during his reign. **Aurangzeb:** Did not put as much effort to elevate painting production, leading to a sharp decline. However, the royal atelier was not shut down immediately and continued producing paintings. Many Mughal court painters migrated to provincial Rajasthani courts — this migration fertilised the Rajasthani/Rajput school. **Later Mughal Painting:** Due to declining patronage, skilled artists sought employment in provincial Mughal courts. While some masterworks were produced under rulers like Muhammad Shah Rangila, Shah Alam II, and Bahadur Shah Zafar, these represented the final phase of the Mughal style. Bahadur Shah Zafar (d. 1857) was the last Mughal ruler, known as a poet, scholar, and connoisseur. Eventually, the Mughal miniature style converged into other styles like the Provincial and Company School. **Process and Technique:** Mughal paintings were typically made on handmade paper. The process involved creating the composition (tarh), depicting portraits (chiharanama), and coloring (rangamizi). Opaque colors were derived from natural sources, ground, and mixed, applied with brushes made from squirrel or kitten hair. Agate, a gemstone, was used to burnish the completed work, setting the colors and imparting radiance. **Comparison with Rajput Style:** | Feature | Mughal | Rajput | |---|---|---| | Origin | Persian miniature | Mural/fresco then miniature | | Theme | Emperor, court, hunting | Devotional, religious | | Peculiarity | Trees, camels, falcons | Lotus, peacock, swan | | Period | 16th–18th century | 17th–18th century |

The Deccan school of miniature painting emerged from the Sultanate courts of South India and developed a distinctive style that was different from both the Mughal and Rajput schools. It represents a third major medieval school alongside Mughal and Rajput traditions. The Deccan style developed in the transition period following the Sultanate's influence, particularly in the southern states of Vijayanagara and the various Deccan Sultanates. Unlike the Mughal style which drew from Persia, or the Rajput style which maintained Hindu iconography, the Deccan style developed its own synthesis. The history of Deccani Painting can be largely traced from the late sixteenth century until the 1680s, when the Mughals conquered the Deccan, and continued into the 19th century under various rulers. Characteristic features of Deccan painting in the transition period include: colours applied in a flat manner; dress and human outlines demarcated in black; faces viewed from a three-quarter angle giving a detached appearance; and landscapes full of trees and rocks without attempting to replicate natural appearance. The Deccani style is characterized by its unique sensuality, intense colours, dense compositions, and an idiom that was eloquently natural and vivid, often creating an aura of romance. The Deccan style fed into the broader regional schools that developed after the Mughal period and also influenced the Ragamala tradition (Deccan Ragamala is a distinct sub-genre). The Deccan Sultanates' patronage of art created a unique cultural synthesis drawing from Persian, Indian and even some European influences.

The Rajasthani (or Rajput) school of painting is one of the major sub-imperial schools that developed alongside and in the shadow of the Mughal court. These schools were patronised by Rajput rulers who were either in direct conflict with or in alliance with the Mughals. When Aurangzeb declined to patronise painting, many Mughal artists migrated to Rajput courts, bringing their techniques and further enriching these regional traditions. The term 'Rajput Paintings' was coined by Anand Coomaraswamy in 1916 to differentiate these schools from the Mughal School, viewing it as representing an indigenous tradition before Mughal conquest. However, in modern studies, the term 'Rajput Schools' is considered obsolete, with specific categories like 'Rajasthani' and 'Pahari' being employed. Despite being separated by short distances, the pictorial styles that emerged were significantly diverse in execution, colour preference, compositional elements, narration modes, and naturalism. Unlike the Mughal school — which was based on Persian miniature style and focused on the emperor, court life and nature — the Rajput schools maintained a devotional and religious character, with strong Hindu symbols like the lotus, peacock and swan. The Rajasthani Schools came into prominence in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century. The Rajput schools were initially mural/fresco-based and later transitioned to miniature form, typically painted on *waslis* (layered handmade papers) using mineral and metal pigments with glue as a binding medium, and camel and squirrel hair brushes, with a final burnishing using an agate. Painting was often a teamwork, with master artists doing preliminary drawings and pupils/experts handling colouring, portraiture, and other elements, before the master applied finishing touches. Scribes would add verses in designated spaces. Themes were predominantly Vaishnavism, with Krishna as a central figure, depicting love as a synthesis of sensuousness and mysticism. Illustrated texts included Gita Govinda, Rasamanjari, Rasikapriya, Kavipriya (featuring Baramasa), and Bihari Satsai. Ragamala paintings were pictorial interpretations of ragas and raginis. Bardic legends and romantic tales like Dhola-Maru were also popular, alongside texts such as Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, Mahabharata, and Devi Mahatmya. Additionally, secular themes like darbar scenes, hunting expeditions, wars, picnics, festivals, portraits, and city views were common. There are several distinct sub-schools of Rajasthani painting, each corresponding to its princely state of origin: **Mewar School:** The kingdom of Mewar resisted Mughal suzerainty longest. The emergence of the Mewar School is widely associated with an early dated set of Ragamala paintings from 1605 by Nisardin at Chawand. The reign of Jagat Singh I (1628–1652) saw a reformulation of aesthetics under virtuoso artists Sahibdin and Manohar. Sahibdin painted Rasikapriya, Bhagvata Purana (1648), and the Yuddha Kanda of Ramayana (1652), using oblique aerial perspective and layering narrative techniques. Manohar's significant work includes Bal Kanda of Ramayana (1649). Jagannath painted the Bihari Satsai in 1719. Other illustrated texts were Harivamsha and Sursagar. Mewar artists generally preferred a bright colour palette with prominent reds and yellows. In the late seventeenth century, Nathdwara, a Vaishnava center, emerged, known for large cloth backdrops called *pichhwais* for the deity Shrinathji. Eighteenth-century Mewar painting became increasingly secular and courtly, focusing on portraiture, court scenes, hunting, and festivals. **Kishangarh School:** Associated with the romantic legend of Sawant Singh (the prince), Bani Thani (his beloved), Nagari Das (the poet) and Nihal Chand (the painter). Founded by Kishan Singh in 1609, a distinctive style with elongated human forms, lavish use of green, and panoramic landscapes evolved by the early eighteenth century under Raj Singh. Sawant Singh, who wrote devotional poetry as Nagari Das, fell in love with Bani Thani, an attendant, poetess, singer, and dancer. She became his muse, leading to Nihal Chand's iconic Bani Thani paintings which blend poetry and painting. The exaggerated facial type, with deeply curved, lotus-petal shaped eyes, exaggerated arched eyebrows, a sharp slender nose, thin lips, and a pronounced chin, is a distinctive feature of the school, believed to be derived from Bani Thani's features. Sawant Singh and Bani Thani are often represented as Radha and Krishna. **Bundi School:** Part of the Hadoti group (twin kingdoms of Bundi and Kota). The kings were devout devotees of Krishna. Flourished in the seventeenth century, notable for its unblemished colour sense and formal design. The earliest phase is the Bundi Ragamala (1591) painted at Chunar by artists Shaykh Hasan, Shaykh Ali, and Shaykh Hatim, who were pupils of Mughal masters. Patronage under Rao Chattar Sal (1631–1659) and Rao Bhao Singh (1659–1682) led to blossoming, with further innovations under Aniruddha Singh (1682–1702) and Budh Singh. The most accomplished phase, with refinement and minuteness of detail, occurred under Umed Singh (1749–1771). Eighteenth-century Bundi paintings imbibed Deccani aesthetics like bright colours. Bishen Singh (1771–1821) was known for hunting scenes, and Ram Singh (1821–1889) commissioned murals in the Bundi palace *chitrashala*. Distinctive features include detailed lush vegetation, picturesque landscapes, equestrian portraits, unsurpassed elephant drawings, and women depicted as petite with round faces, receding foreheads, sharp noses, full cheeks, sharply penciled eyebrows, and a 'pinched' waist. Baramasa was a popular theme. **Kota School:** Developed from the Bundi tradition after Kota separated from Bundi in 1625. It commenced around the 1660s under Jagat Singh (1658–1683). While early Kota paintings borrowed heavily from Bundi, a strikingly individual style emerged, excelling in the depiction of hunting scenes and reflecting an obsession for animal chase, which even court women participated in. Ram Singh I (1686–1708) saw artists render landscape as a primary subject. Umed Singh (1770–1819) patronized extensive hunting records. Kota paintings are spontaneous, calligraphic, and emphasize marked shading, especially a double-lid eye, with artists excelling in rendering animals and combat. **Amber-Jaipur School (Dhundar School):** Closely associated with the Mughals. Jaipur rulers maintained cordial relations with Mughals, influencing aesthetics. Raja Bharmal, Bhagwant Das, and Man Singh were all associated with the Mughal court. Sawai Jai Singh (1699–1743) founded Jaipur in 1727, reorganised the *Suratkhana* (painting department), and brought Mughal painters. He patronised Vaishnavite themes, with artists like Sahibram and Muhammad Shah. Under Sawai Ishwari Singh (1743–1750), leisure pursuits were depicted, and Sawai Madho Singh (1750–1767) favoured court life records. It reached its zenith under Sawai Pratap Singh (1779–1803) in the 18th century, when Mughal influence receded, and a blend of Mughal and indigenous styles emerged. Pratap Singh, a devotee of Krishna, employed around 50 artists for royal portraits, court scenes, and literary/religious themes like Gita Govinda, Ragamala, and Bhagvata Purana. Techniques included tracing and pouncing. By the early nineteenth century, there was lavish use of gold, and Jaipur preferred large format and life-size portraits. **Marwar School:** Most extensive school — includes Jodhpur, Bikaner (ruled by Rathods) and Jaisalmer (ruled by Bhatis). 15th–16th century paintings followed Mughal patterns; after the 18th century, Rajput elements became predominant with linear rhythm and bright colours. The indigenous folkish style resisted being overpowered by Mughal aesthetics. An early Ragamala set (1623) by artist Virji was painted in Pali. Maharaja Jaswant Singh (1638–1678) ushered in a productive period of documentary pa

The tradition of miniature painting in India developed between the 8th and 12th centuries as a reaction to the enormous wall paintings of the mural tradition. Miniature paintings were small, detailed works painted on perishable materials — paper, palm leaves, and cloth — often as illustrations for manuscripts. Two prominent early schools emerged: the Pala School and the Apabhramsa School. **Pala School of Art (750–1150 AD):** The Pala school flourished in eastern India (Bengal and Bihar) under the Pala dynasty, which was a patron of Buddhism. These paintings were typically found as parts of Buddhist manuscripts, executed on palm leaves or vellum paper. Buddhist monks who practiced non-violence were limited to banana or coconut tree leaves as prescribed surfaces. The Pala paintings are characterised by sinuous lines and subdued tones of background imagery. Single figures dominate — group paintings are rare. Simple compositions prevail. The Vajrayana school of Buddhism also used and patronised these paintings. Two prominent painters were Dhimman and Vitapala. **Apabhramsa School of Art (11th–15th century):** This school traces its origin to Gujarat and the Mewar region of Rajasthan and was the dominant school of painting in western India during the 11th–15th centuries. Themes were primarily Jain in the early phase, with the Vaishnava school later introducing Gita Govinda and secular love themes. In the early Jain phase, paintings were made on palm leaves; later they shifted to paper. Even though these were manuscript illustrations, they functioned essentially as murals in reduced dimensions. Colours had symbolic meaning — red, yellow and ochre were standard; bright and gold colours appeared in the later phase. Characteristic human figures have fish-shaped bulging eyes, pointed nose, double chin, angular third-and-fourth-profile faces, stiff postures, enlarged hips and breasts for female figures. Animal and bird figurines are represented as toys. The most famous examples are the Kalpasutra and the Kalakacharya Katha from the 15th century. **Transition Period and Delhi Sultanate Miniatures:** The coming of Muslims in the 14th century brought cultural synthesis. The Islamic styles did not eliminate traditional painting but created a fusion. Sultanate miniatures combined Persian elements with Indian ones — the finest example is the Nimatnama (a book on cookery) during the reign of Nasir Shah of Mandu. Another sultanate-era style was the Lodi Khuladar, prevalent between Delhi and Jaunpur. From these precedents, three major medieval schools emerged: Mughal, Rajput and Deccan.