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Hindustani Classical Music — Styles, Gharanas and Semi-Classical Forms

›Hindustani music diverged from Carnatic in the 14th century. (p.423)
›Key influence: Arab, Persian, Afghan elements. (p.756–759 comparison table)
›6 major ragas in Hindustani; 72 in Carnatic. (p.789)

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Hindustani classical music is the North Indian tradition of Indian classical music. While its roots go back to Bharata's Natyashastra, it diverged from the Carnatic tradition in the 14th century. The defining characteristic of Hindustani music is its emphasis on improvisation, the gharana system, and time-bound raga performance. **Key divergence from Carnatic:** Hindustani music was heavily influenced by Arab, Persian, and Afghan elements — particularly through the Dhrupad style, which evolved from the devotional Dhruvapada under Islamic patronage, reaching its peak in the court of Akbar. The Hindustani tradition uses the Shudha Swara Saptaka (Octave of Natural Notes) and has 6 main parent ragas (vs Carnatic's 72 Melakarta ragas). --- **Major styles (Gayaki) of Hindustani music:** **Dhrupad** The oldest and grandest form. Mentioned in Natyashastra. Name derives from 'dhruva' (unmoving) and 'pada' (verse). It consolidated as a classical form in the 13th century and peaked in Akbar's court under Tansen, Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas (and supposedly Baiju Bawra). Also prominent in the court of Raja Man Singh Tomar at Gwalior. Dhrupad declined in the 18th century. Structure: Starts with Alap (without words, building tempo). Then Dhrupad begins with Pakhawaj accompaniment. Compositions have 4–5 stanzas, performed by a duo (two male vocalists). Sanskrit syllables used; temple origin. Four styles based on *vanis/banis*: - **Dagari/Dagar Vani** (Dagar family) — emphasises Alap; Dagars are Muslims who sing Hindu texts. Example: Gundecha Brothers, Jaipur. - **Khandar Vani & Gauhar Vani** (Darbhanga Gharana/Mallik family) — emphasises raga alap and composed songs; includes layakari (rhythmic variation). Exponents: Ram Chatur Mallik, Prem Kumar Mallik, Siyaram Tewari. - **Nauhar Vani & Khandar Vani** (Bettiah Gharana/Mishra family) — unique family techniques; Indra Kishore Mishra performs regularly. The Darbhanga and Bettiah schools are known for the **Haveli style**. - **Khandar Vani** (Talwandi Gharana) — Pakistan-based; difficult to maintain within Indian tradition. **Khayal (Khyal)** Meaning "idea or imagination" in Persian. Origin attributed to Amir Khusrau; major patronage under Sultan Mohammad Sharqi (15th century). More scope for improvisation than Dhrupad; Alap is given less room. Structure: Two compositions — **Bada Khyal** (slow tempo) and **Chhota Khyal** (fast tempo), collectively called Bandish. Bandish theme is typically romantic — love, praise of God or king. Major Khayal Gharanas: - **Gwalior Gharana** — Oldest and most elaborate. Equal emphasis on melody and rhythm; prefers simple ragas despite complex singing. Exponents: Nathu Khan, Vishnu Palushkar. - **Kirana Gharana** — Named after Kirana, Uttar Pradesh. Founded by Nayak Gopal; popularised by Abdul Karim Khan and Abdul Wahid Khan. Famous for precise tuning, slow tempo ragas, melodic clarity, and traditional Sargam. Exponents: Pandit Bhimsen Joshi, Gangubai Hangal. Associated also with Carnatic tradition at Maharashtra-Karnataka border. - **Agra Gharana** — Historically attributed to Khuda Baksh or Haji Sujan Khan; revived with lyrical touch by Faiyaz Khan (renamed Rangeela Gharana). Blends Khyal and Dhrupad; emphasis on Bandish. Exponents: Mohsin Khan Niazi, Vijay Kichlu. - **Patiala Gharana** — Founded by Bade Fateh Ali Khan and Ali Baksh Khan (19th century); patronised by Maharaja of Patiala. Known for ghazal, thumri, and khayal. Emphasis on intricate tanas, gamak, and gayaki of Tarana style. Most famous exponent: Bade Ghulam Ali Khan Sahab, renowned for Raga Darbari. - **Bhendibazaar Gharana** — Founded by Chhajju Khan, Nazir Khan, Khadim Hussain Khan (19th century). Unique for singers trained to control breath for long passages. Incorporates Carnatic ragas. **Tarana** Rhythm-dominant style. A short main melody repeated with variation, contrasting higher melody introduced once, returning to main. Sung at fast tempo with rhythmic syllables. World's Fastest Tarana Singer: Pandit Rattan Mohan Sharma of Mewati Gharana (title: "Tarana ke Baadshah," 2011, Hyderabad). --- **Semi-Classical Hindustani Styles:** Use lighter versions of ragas (e.g., Bhoopali, Malkaush), faster tempo, and emphasise lyrics and bhava over alap-jod-tan-jhala. **Thumri** Based on mixed ragas; romantic or devotional — typically girl's love for Krishna. Language: Hindi, Awadhi, or Braj Bhasha. Compositions sung in female voice; inherently sensual. Allows improvisation. Two types: **Purbi Thumri** (slow tempo) and **Punjabi Thumri** (fast, lively). Main gharanas: Banaras and Lucknow. Thumri is also a generic name for lighter forms: Dadra, Hori, Kajari, Saavan, Jhoola, Chaiti. Famous voice: Begum Akhtar. **Tappa** Rhythm-heavy; fast, subtle, knotty constructions. Originated from folk songs of camel riders of North-West India. Gained classical legitimacy at Mughal court of Emperor Muhammad Shah. "Baithaki" style patronised by zamindari classes. Nearly extinct today; few exponents — Mian Sodi, Pandit Laxman Rao (Gwalior), Shanno Khurana. **Ghazal** Poetic form of rhyming couplets and refrain (each line same meter). Maximum 12 couplets (ashaar). Theme: pain of loss/separation and beauty of love. Originated in Iran (10th century). Spread to South Asia in 12th century through Sufi mystics and Islamic Sultanate courts. Peaked in Mughal period. Amir Khusrau was among the first exponents in India. Famous poets: Muhammad Iqbal, Mirza Ghalib, Rumi (13th century), Hafez (14th century), Kazi Nazrul Islam.

Anatomy of Indian Classical Music — Raga, Tala, Swara, Thaat, Rasa

›Three pillars of Indian classical music: Raga, Tala, Swara. (p.103)
›22 Shrutis per octave — first established in Dathilam; endorsed by Sarangadeva in 13th century Sangeet Ratnakara. (p.48–53)
›Saptak = the seven swaras together: Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni. (p.111)

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Indian classical music rests on three main pillars: **Raga** (melodic framework), **Tala** (rhythmic cycle), and **Swara** (note/scale degree). Understanding the anatomy of these elements is essential for both Hindustani and Carnatic traditions. **Swara:** In ancient usage the term referred to Vedic recitation. Over time it came to denote the musical note or scale degree. Bharata's Natyashastra divided swaras into a 22-note scale. The present system uses seven abbreviated swaras — **Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni** — collectively called **Saptak** or **Sargam**. | Name | Function | Abbreviation | |------|----------|--------------| | Sadaja | Tonic | Sa | | Rishabha | Supertonic | Re | | Gandhara | Mediant | Ga | | Madhyama | Sub-dominant | Ma | | Panchama | Dominant | Pa | | Dhaivata | Sub-mediant | Dha | | Nishada | Subtonic | Ni | **Shruti vs Swara:** A Shruti is the smallest gradation of pitch — the quality of frequency. There are 22 Shrutis (microtones) per octave; only 12 are audible. These 12 consist of 7 Suddha Swaras and 5 Vikrita Swaras. **Raga:** From Sanskrit 'Ranj' — to delight or satisfy. A raga is a specific melodic form with a defined ascending (Aaroha) and descending (Avaroha) movement. It is neither a scale nor a mode — it has a unique personality and mood. Three categories of raga by note count: - **Audav/Odava Raga** — Pentatonic, 5 notes - **Shadava Raga** — Hexatonic, 6 notes - **Sampurna Raga** — Heptatonic, 7 notes Three types of raga (Raga Bhed): - **Shuddha Raag** — Absent notes do not change its nature if played. - **Chhayalag Raag** — Absent notes, if played, change its character. - **Sankeerna Raag** — Combination of two or more ragas. Every raga must have at least 5 notes. The principal note is the **Vaadi** (king — used most frequently). The second most important is the **Samvaadi** (queen — the fourth or fifth note relative to vaadi). All other notes are **Anuvaadi**; absent notes are **Vivadi**. **Tempo (Laya):** Three speeds — Vilambit (slow), Madhya (medium), Drut (fast). **Alap:** The gradual exposition of the raga emphasising Vaadi and Samvaadi in slow tempo, sung without words (only 'aa' vowel — Aakaar), at the start of a performance. **Composition structure in Hindustani music:** - **Sthayee/Mukhda** — first part of composition - **Antara** — second part **Taan:** Basic notes in fast tempo showing technical dexterity. A short taan of 3–4 notes is called **Murki**. **Alankara:** Ornamentation — specific melodic presentations in succession following a pattern (e.g., Sa Re Ga, Ga Ma Pa). **Tala:** The rhythmic cycle. Cycles range from 3 to 108 beats. The concept of tala is independent of the melody accompanying it. The tempo maintaining uniformity across the time span is called **Laya**. The most commonly used tala in Hindustani music is **Teen-tal** (16 beats). Other known talas include Dadra, Kaharba, Rupak, Ektal, Jhaptal, Ada Chautal. Only about 30 talas are currently known; 10–12 are actually used. **Thaat:** A classification framework for ragas. V.N. Bhatkhande codified 10 Thaats in Hindustani music — each a parent scale with 7 notes in ascending order. A thaat has no emotional quality and is not sung; ragas derived from it are sung. The **10 Thaats** are: Bilawal, Khamaj, Kafi, Asavari, Bhairavi, Bhairav, Kalyan, Marwa, Poorvi, and Todi. **Rasa:** The emotional responses evoked through music. Originally eight rasas; later **Shanta rasa** was added to make nine (Nauras). After the 15th century, Bhakti rasa (devotion) was also included by many scholars. | Rasa | Mood | |------|------| | Shringara | Love | | Haasya | Humour/Laughter | | Karuna | Pathos | | Roudra | Anger | | Bhayanak | Horror | | Veer | Bravery | | Adbhuta | Wonder | | Bibhatsa | Disgust | | Shant | Peaceful/calm | **Samay (Time):** Each raga is performed at a specific time of day. The day is divided: 12 AM–12 PM is **Poorva Bhaag** (Poorva ragas); 12 PM–12 AM is **Uttar Bhaag** (Uttar ragas). Six main ragas in Hindustani music and their associations: | Raga | Time | Season | Mood | |------|------|--------|------| | Bhairav | Dawn | Any | Peace | | Hindol | Morning | Spring | Sweetness | | Deepak | Night | Summer | Compassion | | Megh | Late Night | Rainy | Courage | | Shree | Evening | Winter | Gladness | | Malkaush | Midnight | Winter | Bravery |

All key facts

›Three pillars of Indian classical music: Raga, Tala, Swara. (p.103)
›22 Shrutis per octave — first established in Dathilam; endorsed by Sarangadeva in 13th century Sangeet Ratnakara. (p.48–53)
›Saptak = the seven swaras together: Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni. (p.111)
›Vaadi = king note (most important); Samvaadi = queen note (2nd most important). (p.182–187)
›Thaat has only Aaroha (ascending) — no Avaroha; Raga must have both. (p.303–309)
›Thaat has no vaadi/samvaadi; Raga does. (p.392–394)
›10 Thaats codified by V.N. Bhatkhande — Bilawal, Khamaj, Kafi, Asavari, Bhairavi, Bhairav, Kalyan, Marwa, Poorvi, Todi. (p.309)
›Teen-tal = 16 beats — most commonly used in Hindustani compositions. (p.249)
›Carnatic music has 175 thalas (35 × 5 ghaatis). (p.255)
›Originally 8 rasas; Shanta added to make 9. Bhakti accepted after 15th century. (p.265–288)
›Alap is sung without words in 'aa' vowel (Aakaar). (p.332)

carnatic classical musichindustani classical musicindian musical instruments

Indian Musical Instruments — Four Traditional Categories (Vadya Classification)

›Four categories of instruments: Awanad Vadya (membrane), Sushira Vadya (wind), Ghana Vadya (solid/idiophone), Tata Vadya (string). (p.1227–1295)
›Most ancient membranophone: Bhumi Dundubhi (earth drum). (p.1238)
›Tabla = Hindustani; Mridangam = Carnatic. (p.1243–1246)

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Indian musical instruments are classified into four major traditional categories based on their mode of sound production. This classification system predates modern Western musicology and is described in classical treatises. The four categories are: **1. Awanad/Avanaddha Vadya — Membranophone instruments** Percussion instruments with an outer membrane (hide or skin) that is beaten to produce sound. Also called 'struck' instruments. Generally have one or two faces covered with hide. The most ancient in this class: **Bhumi Dundubhi** (earth drum). Key instruments: Tabla, Drum, Dhol, Congo, Mridangam. - **Tabla** — primary accompaniment in Hindustani classical vocal performances. - **Mridangam** — primary percussion instrument in Carnatic music performances. **2. Sushira Vadya — Aerophone (wind) instruments** All wind instruments fall under this category. Sound produced by blowing air. Key instruments: Bansuri (flute), Shehnai, Pungi, Ninkirns. - **Shehnai** — double-reeded wind instrument with widening tube. One of the oldest wind instruments in India. Title of 'Shehnai King' given to **Ustad Bismillah Khan**, who took it to its zenith. - **Bansuri (flute)** — In use since Vedic period; initially called Nadi or Tunava. Became culturally iconic through the image of Lord Krishna playing flute. Most famous Indian flautist: **Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia**. **3. Ghana Vadya — Idiophone (solid) instruments** Solid instruments that do NOT require tuning. Also called Ghana Vadya because the solid body itself vibrates to produce sound. Key instruments: Manjira, Jaltarang, Kanch-tarang, Jhanj, Khartal. - **Manjira** — small brass cymbal used in temples; dated to Harappan civilisation through archaeological excavations. Primary function: keeping rhythm and time. **4. Tata Vadya — Chordophone (string) instruments** String instruments where sound is modified and modulated by hand. Three sub-types: - **Bowed (arco)** — bow drawn across strings: Sarangi, Esraj, Violin. - **Plectral (pizzicato)** — strings plucked by fingers or plectrum: Sitar, Veena, Tamboora (Tanpura). - **Struck** — strings struck by small hammer or pair of sticks: Gotuvadyam, Swaramandal. Key instruments: - **Sarod** — Bhangash family considered pioneers in 20th century. - **Sitar** — multiple gharanas: Jaipur, Varanasi, Etawah (Imaad Khani). - **Veena** — parts mentioned in Aitareya Aranyaka; associated with Carnatic music. Seven-holed flute and Ravanahatha found at Indus Valley Civilisation sites. **Summary table:** | Category | Type | Key Instruments | |----------|------|----------------| | Awanad/Avanaddha Vadya | Membranophone (membrane struck) | Tabla, Mridangam, Dhol, Pakhawaj | | Sushira Vadya | Aerophone (wind/air) | Bansuri, Shehnai, Pungi | | Ghana Vadya | Idiophone (solid body) | Manjira, Jaltarang, Khartal | | Tata Vadya | Chordophone (strings) | Sitar, Veena, Sarod, Sarangi, Tabla | **Instruments common to BOTH Hindustani and Carnatic:** Flute and Violin. **Instruments specifically Hindustani:** Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Santoor. **Instruments specifically Carnatic:** Veena, Mridangam, Mandolin.

All key facts

›Four categories of instruments: Awanad Vadya (membrane), Sushira Vadya (wind), Ghana Vadya (solid/idiophone), Tata Vadya (string). (p.1227–1295)
›Most ancient membranophone: Bhumi Dundubhi (earth drum). (p.1238)
›Tabla = Hindustani; Mridangam = Carnatic. (p.1243–1246)
›Shehnai = double-reeded wind instrument; 'Shehnai King' = Ustad Bismillah Khan. (p.1253–1254)
›Flute called Nadi or Tunava in Vedic period. Most famous flautist: Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia. (p.1259–1266)
›Manjira = brass cymbal; dated to Harappan civilisation. (p.1271–1276)
›Tata Vadya sub-types: Bowed (Sarangi, Esraj, Violin), Plectral (Sitar, Veena, Tamboora), Struck (Gotuvadyam, Swaramandal). (p.1283–1295)
›Flute and Violin are common to BOTH traditions. (p.813–814)
›Seven-holed flute and Ravanahatha found at Indus Valley Civilisation sites. (p.22–24 of ch05)

Carnatic Classical Music — Structure, Styles and Key Differences from Hindustani

›Carnatic music diverged from Hindustani in the 14th century (both trace roots to Natyashastra). (p.423)
›Carnatic ragas: 72 (Melakarta system). Hindustani: 6 major ragas. (p.789)
›Carnatic music does NOT adhere to time-of-day for ragas. (p.793)

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Carnatic music is the classical music tradition of South India. Like Hindustani music, it traces its roots to Bharata's Natyashastra, but diverged in the 14th century. Unlike the Hindustani tradition, Carnatic music has a more rigid structure with limited scope for improvisation, a unified prescribed style (no gharana system), and a greater emphasis on vocal music over instruments. **Distinguishing Features:** Carnatic music is **kriti-based** — the central compositional form is the **Kriti**, a highly evolved musical song set to a specific raga and fixed tala. The Kriti focuses on saahitya — the lyric quality of the composition. **Structure of a Carnatic composition:** - **Pallavi** — The first thematic line(s), treated as the 'pièce de résistance' of the composition. The high-point of improvisation in the form called **Ragam Thanam Pallavi** occurs here. Often repeated in each stanza. - **Anu Pallavi** — Two lines following the Pallavi; sung at the beginning and sometimes at the end, but not repeated after every stanza/Charanam. - **Varnam** — Composition usually sung at the beginning of a recital to introduce the raga to the audience. Has two parts: **Purvanga** (first half) and **Uttaranga** (second half). - **Ragamalika** — Concluding part of the performance; the soloist may freely improvise but must return to the original theme at the end. **Other structural elements:** - **Swara-Kalpana** — Improvised section performed with the drummer in medium and fast paces. - **Thanam** — Melodic improvisation in free rhythm with mridangam. - **Ragam** — Pieces without mridangam accompaniment. **Tala system in Carnatic music:** Much more rigid than Hindustani. Talas (spelled 'Thala') are made of three components — **Laghu**, **Dhrutam**, and **Anu Dhrutam**. There are 35 original thalas, each divisible into 5 ghaatis — giving **175 thalas** (35 × 5). This contrasts with Hindustani where only 10–12 talas are actually used. **Ragas in Carnatic music:** There are 72 parent ragas (Melakarta system), compared to 6 main ragas in Hindustani. Carnatic music does NOT adhere to specific time-of-day for raga performance — a key distinction from Hindustani. **Influence:** Carnatic music is essentially indigenous — no Arab, Persian, or Afghan influence (unlike Hindustani). It has maintained a more consistent original character since the classical period. **Instruments:** Primary accompanying instrument is **Mridangam** (drum). Flute and Violin are used in both Hindustani and Carnatic traditions. Major Carnatic instruments: Mridangam, Veena, Mandolin, Violin, Flute, Venu (bamboo flute), Ghatam, Morsing, Kanjira. **Hindustani vs Carnatic — Key Comparison:** | Point | Hindustani | Carnatic | |-------|-----------|---------| | Influence | Arab, Persian, Afghan | Indigenous | | Improvisation | High scope; varies | Very limited | | Sub-styles | Multiple gharanas | One prescribed style | | Instrument role | Equally important as vocals | More emphasis on vocals | | No. of major ragas | 6 | 72 | | Time adherence | Yes (time-bound ragas) | No | | Major instruments | Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Santoor | Veena, Mridangam, Mandolin | | Common instruments | Flute, Violin | Flute, Violin | | Regional association | North India | South India |

All key facts

›Carnatic music diverged from Hindustani in the 14th century (both trace roots to Natyashastra). (p.423)
›Carnatic ragas: 72 (Melakarta system). Hindustani: 6 major ragas. (p.789)
›Carnatic music does NOT adhere to time-of-day for ragas. (p.793)
›Kriti is the central compositional form in Carnatic music. (p.719–720)
›Pallavi is the 'pièce de résistance' (best part) of a Carnatic composition. (p.724–729)
›Carnatic tala system: 175 thalas (35 × 5 ghaatis). (p.253–255)
›Three components of Carnatic tala: Laghu, Dhrutam, Anu Dhrutam. (p.253)
›Primary drum: Mridangam. (p.749)
›Thanam = melodic improvisation in free rhythm with mridangam. (p.751)
›Ragam = improvisation without mridangam. (p.751)
›Flute and Violin are common to BOTH Hindustani and Carnatic traditions. (p.813–814)
›No gharana system in Carnatic — only one prescribed style. (p.773–775)

anatomy of indian classical musichindustani classical musicindian musical instruments