Art & Culture

Buddhist Architecture

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Buddhist Rock-cut Caves of Eastern India

›Buddhist caves have been excavated in eastern India, mainly in the coastal region of Andhra Pradesh.
›Guntapalle in Eluru district, Andhra Pradesh, is a main site for Buddhist rock-cut caves.
›Guntapalle is unique for having structured stupas, viharas, and caves excavated at one place.

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Buddhist rock-cut caves have been excavated in eastern India, primarily along the coastal region of Andhra Pradesh. These sites offer insights into the Buddhist architectural tradition in the region, featuring both caves and structured monastic complexes. One of the significant sites is Guntapalle in the Eluru district of Andhra Pradesh, notable for being a unique location where structured stupas, viharas (monasteries), and rock-cut caves coexist. The chaitya cave at Guntapalle is circular, housing a stupa within its circular hall, and features a chaitya arch at its entrance. These Guntapalle caves are relatively smaller in comparison to their counterparts in western India. Numerous vihara caves have also been unearthed at Guntapalle. Despite their modest dimensions, the main vihara caves are externally adorned with chaitya arches, exhibit a rectangular layout with vaulted roofs, and are either single or double-storeyed without a large central hall. These excavations at Guntapalle date back to the second century BCE, with additional vihara-type excavations from subsequent centuries. Another site in the region is Rampaerrampallam, which features moderate, small excavations and rock-cut stupas on a hillock. Further, at Anakapalli near Vishakhapatnam, caves and a massive rock-cut stupa were carved out of a hillock during the fourth to fifth centuries CE. This site is distinguished by having the biggest rock-cut stupas in India, complemented by many votive rock-cut stupas scattered around the hillock.

All key facts

›Buddhist caves have been excavated in eastern India, mainly in the coastal region of Andhra Pradesh.
›Guntapalle in Eluru district, Andhra Pradesh, is a main site for Buddhist rock-cut caves.
›Guntapalle is unique for having structured stupas, viharas, and caves excavated at one place.
›The Guntapalle chaitya cave is circular, contains a stupa in its circular hall, and has a chaitya arch at the entrance.
›Caves at Guntapalle are relatively small compared to those in western India.

Mahabodhi Temple, Bodhgaya

›The Mahabodhi Temple is located at Bodhgaya (p. 91).
›Bodhgaya is considered a pre-eminent Buddhist site (p. 91).
›It is a pilgrimage site because Siddhartha achieved enlightenment there and became Gautama Buddha (p. 91).

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The Mahabodhi Temple, situated in Bodhgaya, is a pre-eminent Buddhist pilgrimage site in India. It holds immense religious significance as the place where Siddhartha attained enlightenment and became Gautama Buddha. The Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya is also of great importance. The Mahabodhi Temple serves as an important architectural example, particularly reminding us of the brickwork techniques prevalent during its time of construction.

All key facts

›The Mahabodhi Temple is located at Bodhgaya (p. 91).
›Bodhgaya is considered a pre-eminent Buddhist site (p. 91).
›It is a pilgrimage site because Siddhartha achieved enlightenment there and became Gautama Buddha (p. 91).
›The Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya is of immense importance (p. 91).

Buddhist Architecture — Stupas, Chaityas, Viharas, and Rock-Cut Caves

›Stupas: Vedic origin, popularised by Buddhists; ~84,000 built by Ashoka (p.63)
›After Buddha's death: 8 stupas at relics, 9th stupa at the original relic pot (p.63)
›Shunga dynasty introduced ornately carved stone torans for stupas (p.65)

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Buddhist architecture evolved over nearly a millennium (3rd century BCE to 7th century CE) producing three main structural forms: stupas (commemorative mounds), chaityas (prayer halls), and viharas (residential monasteries). The Mauryan period established the stupa tradition; the Mauryan period also saw the development of rock-cut caves, such as the Lomus Rishi cave, alongside the established stupa tradition; the post-Mauryan period saw rock-cut chaityas and viharas flourish; the Gupta period saw the great cave painting complexes at Ajanta and Ellora. **Stupas**: Originally Vedic burial mounds, adapted by Buddhists to enshrine relics of the Buddha and later, other holy persons. The basic stupa structure: - *Medhi*: Raised circular terrace/drum base - *Anda*: Hemispherical dome (core = unburnt brick; outer = burnt brick + plaster) - *Harmika*: Square railing atop the anda - *Yashti*: Central pole/mast rising from harmika - *Chattra*: Umbrella-like disc(s) representing honour - *Toran*: Ornamental gateway (added post-Maurya by Shunga dynasty) - *Pradakshina patha*: Open circumambulatory passage for worship Post-Mauryan development: Stone replaced wood and brick. The Shunga dynasty introduced ornately carved stone *torans* (gateways), showing Hellenistic influence. Stupas became larger and more decorative. Key examples: Sanchi Stupa (MP) — most famous; Bharhut Stupa (MP); Piprahwa Stupa (UP) — oldest. **Chaityas**: Prayer/worship halls — developed in the post-Mauryan period. Quadrangular chambers with flat roofs, featuring an apse (rounded end) containing a miniature stupa. They had open courtyards and stone screen walls. The famous Karle Chaitya (Maharashtra, 1st century CE) is the largest rock-cut chaitya in India. Ajanta has 4 chaitya caves out of its 29 total. **Viharas**: Residential halls for Buddhist (and Jain) monks, developed from the Mauryan period onward. Typically consisted of a central hall surrounded by individual monks' cells. Ajanta has 25 viharas and 4 chaityas. **Rock-cut cave complexes**: - *Ajanta Caves* (Maharashtra, Waghora river, Sahyadri ranges): 29 caves, developed 200 BCE to 650 CE. 25 viharas + 4 chaityas. 5 caves from Hinayana phase; 24 from Mahayana phase. Paintings use fresco method (lime plaster, local pigments). Famous for murals — Buddhist themes, Jataka stories. No blue colour in paintings. Developed under Vakataka king Harishena's patronage. Referenced by Fa-Hien and Hieun-Tsang. - *Ellora Caves* (Maharashtra, Sahyadri, ~100 km from Ajanta): 34 caves, 5th–11th centuries CE. 12 Buddhist (Caves 1–12), 17 Hindu/Brahmanical (Caves 13–29), 5 Jain (Caves 30–34). Cave 10: Buddhist Chaitya "Vishwakarma Cave" (Buddha in Vyakhyana Mudra); Cave 16: Kailash Temple (Hindu, Rashtrakuta); Caves 32–33: Jain (Indra Sabha, Jagannath Sabha). - *Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves* (Odisha): Made by Kalinga king Kharavela; Jain monks' residences. 18 caves at Udayagiri, 15 at Khandagiri. Famous for Hathigumpha inscription. - *Nasik Caves*: 24 Buddhist caves, also called Pandav Leni; Hinayana period (1st century CE) with later Mahayana influence. - *Bagh Caves* (MP, Bagh river): 9 Buddhist caves, 6th century CE; architecturally similar to Ajanta. - *Junagadh Caves* (Gujarat): Three sites; unique feature is a 30–50 ft citadel ("Upar Kot") in front of the prayer hall. - *Barabar and Nagarjuni Caves* (Bihar): Mauryan period; for Ajivika monks; highly polished interiors. - *Barabar and Nagarjuni Caves* (Bihar): Mauryan period; for Ajivika monks; highly polished interiors. **Ajanta Paintings — Technique**: Three-step fresco process: (1) clay mixed with cow dung and rice husk applied on rock; (2) lime plaster coating; (3) pigments/colours applied on moist surface to seep into rock permanently. Outlines drawn in red colour first.

All key facts

›Stupas: Vedic origin, popularised by Buddhists; ~84,000 built by Ashoka (p.63)
›After Buddha's death: 8 stupas at relics, 9th stupa at the original relic pot (p.63)
›Shunga dynasty introduced ornately carved stone torans for stupas (p.65)
›Bharhut Stupa (MP) and Sanchi Stupa toran: examples of Shunga-era stupa decoration (p.65)
›Chaityas = prayer halls; Viharas = residential halls for monks (p.65)
›Ajanta: 29 caves total (25 viharas + 4 chaityas); 200 BCE–650 CE (p.71)
›Ajanta paintings: no blue colour used; fresco method; outlines in red (p.71)
›Ajanta patronised by Vakataka king Harishena (p.71)
›Ellora: 34 caves; 12 Buddhist + 17 Hindu + 5 Jain (p.72)
›Ellora Cave 10: Vishwakarma Cave (Buddhist chaitya); Cave 16: Kailash Temple (Hindu) (p.72)
›Kailash Temple (Ellora Cave 16): built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I; carved from a monolith (p.72)
›Udayagiri-Khandagiri (Odisha): built by King Kharavela; Jain monks' caves (p.65)
›Bagh Caves (MP): only other example of Gupta-era cave paintings alongside Ajanta (p.73)
›Karle Chaitya (Maharashtra): largest rock-cut chaitya (p.65)
›Ashoka patronised the Buddhist shraman tradition in the 3rd century BCE.
›Yaksha worship was prevalent before and after the advent of Buddhism and was assimilated into Buddhism and Jainism.
›Mauryan pillars are rock-cut, displaying the carver's skills, unlike Achamenian pillars which are constructed in pieces by a mason.
›Stone pillars with inscriptions were erected by Ashoka in the north Indian part of the Mauryan Empire.
›The Lomus Rishi cave, carved at Barabar hills near Gaya in Bihar, has a facade decorated with a semicircular chaitya arch as its entrance and an elephant frieze in high relief.
›The interior hall of the Lomus Rishi cave is rectangular with a circular chamber at the back, and the cave was donated by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect.
›The Sarnath Lion Capital, commemorating the first sermon (Dhammachakrapravartana) by the Buddha, was built by Ashoka.
›Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at locations including Rajagraha, Vaishali, Vethadipa, and Pava in Bihar; Kapilavastu, Allakappa, and Ramagrama in Nepal; and Kushinagar and Pippalvina in Uttar Pradesh.
›An example of a stupa structure from the 3rd century BCE is found at Bairat in Rajasthan.
›The Great Stupa at Sanchi was built with bricks during the time of Ashoka and later covered with stone with many new additions.
›During the early phase of Buddhism, the Buddha was depicted symbolically through footprints, stupas, lotus throne, and chakra.
›Narrative depictions, including events from the Buddha’s life and Jataka stories, became a part of Buddhist tradition and were depicted on the railings and torans of stupas.
›Frequently depicted Jataka stories include Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Vessantara Jataka, and Shama Jataka.
›Main events from the Buddha's life frequently depicted in Buddhist art are his birth, renunciation, enlightenment, Dhammachakrapravartana, and Mahaparinibbana.